Modern meteorological instruments used in everyday life presentation. Write a short story about meteorological instruments. Find out more information about them from encyclopedias or the Internet. Meteorological Measurement Tools

FEDERAL SERVICE FOR HYDROMETEOROLOGY

AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Government agency

"Research and Production Association "Typhoon"

CENTRAL DESIGN BUREAU

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION

CATALOG-directory

Instruments and equipment for hydrometeorology and environmental pollution monitoring

PART 1

Hydrometeorological instruments and equipment

Obninsk 2006

Hydrometeorological DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT.. 8

1.1. DEVICES FOR MEASUREMENT AND REGISTRATION OF ATMOSPHERE PARAMETERS... 8

1.1.1. Instruments for measuring and recording wind parameters.. 8

Anemorumbometer M63M-1. 8

Anemormbograph M63MR.. 10

Signal anemometer AS-1. 12

Manual electronic anemometer ARE.. 14

Digital portable anemometer AP1M.. 16

Signal digital anemometer M-95-TsM.. 18

Cup anemometer MS-13. 20

Vane anemometer ASO-3. 21

Wind parameter sensor M-127M.. 22

Wind parameter sensor M-127. 24

Anemorummeter "Peleng-SF-03". 26

Wind parameter meter IPV-01. 28

Wind parameter meter IPV – 92M.. 32

Weather vanes FVL and FVT. 35

Electronic anemometer APR-2. 37

Manual induction anemometer ARI-49. 39

1.1.2. Instruments for measuring and recording atmospheric precipitation.. 41

Liquid precipitation sensor "Peleng SF-04". 41

Tretyakov O-1 precipitation gauge. 43

Pluviograph P-2M.. 45

1.1.3. Instruments for measuring and recording atmospheric pressure.. 47

Barometer M-67 (CONTROL) 47

Meteorological aneroid barograph M-22A.. 49

Barometer M-110. 51

Barometer BAMM-1 (meteorological) 53

Working network barometer BRS-1M.. 55

Special working barometer BRS-1s. 57

Two-channel pressure measurement unit BID-1. 59

Automated barometer MD-13. 61

Precision atmospheric pressure meter MD-13 "BARS". 63

Precision intelligent sensor - atmospheric pressure meter MD-13 "Falcon" 65

Quartz barometer MD-20. 67

1.1.4. Instruments for measuring and recording air temperature.. 69

Meteorological thermograph with bimetallic sensitive element M-16A 69

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM1. 71

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM2. 73

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM4. 75

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM 6. 77

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM7. 79

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM9. 80

1.1.5. Instruments for measuring and recording air humidity.. 82

Hygrograph M-21A.. 82

Aspiration psychrometer (mechanical) MV-4-2M.. 84

Aspiration psychrometer (electric) M-34M.. 86

Hygrometer M-19. 88

Hygrometer M-19-1. 90

Psychrometric hygrometers VIT-1 and VIT-2. 91

1.1.6. Instruments for measuring and recording radiant energy, heat flows in the air, duration of sunshine.. 93

Pyranometer "Peleng SF-06". 93

Actinometric module MA.. 96

Universal heliograph GU-1. 98

Meteorological support... 98

1.1.7. Instruments for measuring and recording meteorological visibility range (transparency), illumination, height of the lower boundary of clouds. 99

Cloud height sensor "DVO-2". 99

Cloud height meter "DVO-2". 101

RVO-3 cloud height recorder. 103

Cloud base meter “Peleng SD-01-2000” (INGO).” 105

Device for measuring meteorological visibility range "Peleng SF-01". 107

Pulse photometer FI-2. 109

Visibility range meter FI-3. 111

Laser cloud rangefinder DOL-1. 114

1.1.8. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of meteorological elements.. 116

Thermal anemometer TAM-M1. 116

Temperature meters IT-2. 119

Temperature and humidity meter MT-3. 121

Microprocessor meter of relative humidity and temperature (thermohygrometer) IVTM-7 MK-S-M. 124

Portable microprocessor device for measuring relative humidity and temperature (thermohygrometer) IVTM-7 K.. 126

Portable microprocessor recording thermohygrometer IVTM-7 M, IVTM-7 M2 and IVTM-7 M3. 128

Thermohygrometer IVA-6B2. 130

1.2.DEVICES FOR MEASUREMENT AND REGISTRATION OF SOIL AND SNOW COVER PARAMETERS, INCLUDING FOR PRODUCTION OF AGROMETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORK.. 132

1.2.1. Instruments for measuring and recording the temperature of soil, snow and vegetation cover, heat flows in soil and snow cover 132

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM1. 132

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM2. 134

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM3. 136

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM5. 138

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM10. 140

Soil thermometer AM-34. 142

Probe thermometer AM-6. 144

Electronic digital thermometer AMT-2. 146

1.2.2. Instruments for measuring and recording the height and density of snow cover and water reserves in it... 148

Snow measuring rod made of aluminum M-46. 148

Stationary snow measuring rod M-103. 149

Portable snow measuring rod M-104. 150

Weighing snow gauge VS-43. 151

Ice snow gauge GR-31. 153

1.2.3. Instruments for measuring and recording moisture in soil and vegetation.. 154

Multifunctional moisture meter IVDM-2. 154

1.3.DEVICES FOR PRODUCING AIR OBSERVATIONS... 156

1.3.1. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of aerological elements.. 156

Aerologist's automated workstation (AWS). 156

Upper-air radar station "BREEZ". 158

Meteorological temperature profiler (MTP5) 160

Small-sized upper-air radiosondes MARZ 2-1, 2-2. 162

Meteorological radiosonde. 164

Small-sized radiosondes MRZ-3A (1780 MHz) 166

Small-sized radiosondes MRZ-3AM.. 168

Small-sized radiosondes MRZ-3A (1680) 170

Shells for radio sounding of the atmosphere (No. 400, 500) 172

Radiosonde RF-95. 173

Small-sized upper-air radar MARL-A.. 175

1.4. DEVICES FOR PRODUCTION OF MARINE HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORKS.. 177

1.4.1. Instruments for measuring and recording the electrical conductivity of water 177

Electric salt meter GM-65M.. 177

1.4.2. Instruments for measuring and recording water level... 179

Marine water measuring rod GM-3. 179

1.4.3. Devices for taking samples of bottom sediments... 181

Benthic dredger. 181

1.4.4. Instruments for measuring and recording transparency, water color, underwater illumination... 182

White disc DB. 182

1.4.5. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of marine hydrometeorological elements.. 183

Hydrological meter GMU-2. 183

1.5. DEVICES FOR RIVER HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORK 186

1.5.1. Instruments for measuring and recording wave elements.. 186

Maximum-minimum wave-measuring pole GR-24. 186

1.5.2. Instruments for measuring and recording the speed and direction of flow.. 188

Flow velocity meter with recorder ISP-1. 188

Turntable signal converter PSV-1 (recorder) 190

1.5.3. Instruments for measuring and recording water level... 191

Portable water measuring rod GR-104. 191

Digital float level gauge with single-cable UPSO.. 192

Ground benchmark GR-43. 194

Metal pile PI-20. 195

1.5.4. Instruments for measuring and recording the depth of rivers and lakes.. 196

Echo sounder Praktik. 196

1.5.5. Instruments for measuring and recording evaporation from soil and water surface.. 198

Evaporometer GGI-3000. 198

1.5.6. Instruments for water sampling... 199

Bottle bathometer on a rod GR-16M.. 199

Molchanov GR-18 bathometer. 200

1.5.7. Devices for sampling bottom sediments.. 201

Rod bottom grabber GR-91. 201

GOIN TG-1.5 tube. 203

1.5.8. Instruments for measuring and recording ice phenomena.. 204

Ice measuring rod GR-7M.. 204

1.5.9. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of hydrological elements.. 205

Hydrological complex GRK-1. 205

1.6.SYSTEMS, STATIONS, COMPLEXES FOR METEOROLOGY, HYDROLOGY AND OCEANOLOGY.. 208

Ground meteorological complex MA-6-3. 208

Meteorological complexes MK-14. 211

Meteorological complex MK-14-1M.. 214

(modification MK-14-1) 214

Automated weather observation system ASM.. 215

Integrated radio-technical airfield meteorological station KRAMS-4. 217

Meteorological station AMS LOMO METEO-02. 220

Automated meteorological station (AMS) 222

Automated meteorological measuring system AMIS-1. 224

Road measuring station DIS-01M.. 225

Remote meteorological station M-49. 227

Remote meteorological station M-49M.. 229

Automated information and measurement system "WEATHER". 231

Meteorological field kits KMP.. 232

Mini meteorological probe STD-2. 234

Hydrological complex GRS-3. 236

Automated meteorological radar complex METEOYECHYKA 238

1.7.devices for active influence on clouds and fogs... 240

Anti-hail product (PGI) “Alan”. 240

1.8 DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT FOR CHECKING HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.. 242

Exemplary portable barometer type BOP-1M.. 242

Digital portable reference pressure gauge MCP-2E.. 244

Digital precision two-channel pressure gauge MCP-2-0.3. 246

Exemplary eight-channel temperature meter IT-2. 248

Pneumoanemometer PO-30 for checking aspiration psychrometers. 250

1.9. EQUIPMENT AND AUXILIARY DEVICES FOR HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORK.. 251

1.9.1.Equipment and auxiliary devices for meteorological, agrometeorological and actinometric observations and work 251

Protective louvered booths type BP and BS.. 251

Meteorological mast M-82. 253

Meteorological mast M-82 (1,2,3) (FSUE NPO "Luch") 255

Volumetric soil drill AM-7. 256

Soil drill AM-26M.. 257

Display panel PI-02. 258

Weighing cup VS-1. 260

1.9.2.Equipment and auxiliary devices for river hydrological observations and work.. 261

Manual ice drill GR-113. 261

Annular drill PI-8. 262

Hanging view GR-75. 263

Hydrometric fish-shaped weights GGR.. 264

Hydrometric winch PI-24M.. 265

Lot of measuring LPR-48. 266

Frame for water thermometer OT-51. 267

Filter device Kuprina GR-60. 268

Remote hydrometric installation with manual drive GR-70. 269

UDT cable length indicator. 271

Hydrometric rod GR-56M.. 272

1.9.3.Equipment and auxiliary devices for marine hydrological observations and work.. 273

Hydrometric weights PI-1. 273

Bathometric winch. 274

Marine winch SP-77. 275

Flexible fastening mechanism GR-78. 276

1.9.4. EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES AUXILIARY FOR AIR OBSERVATIONS.. 277

Aerological radar computing complex "VECTOR-M". 277

Consumables for radio sounding of the atmosphere.. 279

1.10. OTHER INFORMATION... 280

Receiving station Liana®.. 280

UniScan receiving station. 282

EOScan receiving station. 284

ScanEx personal receiving station. 286

Meteorological telecommunication complex "TransMet". 288

Autonomous hardware and software complex for data transmission "VIP-Messenger". 294

Integrated system of documented communication and information processing "APS-meteo" 299

Batch controller VIP-M (basic version) 302

automated information system for weather forecaster-consultant "METEOCONSULTANT" 304

Automated information system "METEOEXPERT". 305

Automated information system for weather forecaster RC and ADC "METEOSERVER". 306

Message switching center "METEOTELEX". 307

Meteorological automated radar network workstation. 308

COMPANY ADDRESSES.. 310

Hydrometeorological DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT

Slide 1

Meteorological instruments Completed by: Art. gr. SZ-76 Molotkova N.V. Accepted by: Loginova E.V.

Slide 2

Meteorological instruments are designed to operate in natural conditions in any climatic zone. Therefore, they must work flawlessly, maintaining stable readings in a wide range of temperatures, high humidity, precipitation, and should not be afraid of high wind loads and dust. To compare the results of measurements made at different weather stations, meteorological instruments are made of the same type and installed so that their readings do not depend on random local conditions.

Slide 3

Meteorological thermometer Maximum meteorological thermometer. Mercury glass thermometer for determining the maximum temperature over a period of time. Manufactured according to GOST 112-78. It is included in the State Register of Measuring Instruments and has a certificate “approving the type of measuring instruments”. Technical characteristics: Brand TM-1, Temperature measurement range -35...+50 ºC, Scale division - 0.5 ºC, Thermal. Liquid 18.0±1 Design Glass thermometer with an embedded scale plate made of milky sheet glass. It has a special device that prevents the mercury column from falling during cooling, which allows you to record the maximum temperature for a certain period of time.

Slide 4

Psychro meter Psychro meter (ancient Greek Ψυχρός - cold) also. A psychrometric hygrometer is a device for measuring air humidity and temperature. The simplest psychrometer consists of two alcohol thermometers, one is a regular dry thermometer, and the second has a humidification device. Thermometers have precise graduations with division values of 0.2-0.1 degrees. The temperature sensor of a wet bulb thermometer is wrapped in cotton cloth, which is placed in a container of water. Due to the evaporation of moisture, the moistened thermometer cools. To determine relative humidity, readings are taken from dry and wet thermometers, and then a psychrometric table is used. Typically, the input quantities in a psychrometric table are the dry bulb readings and the temperature difference between the dry and wet bulbs. Modern psychrometers can be divided into three categories: station, aspiration and remote. In station psychrometers, the thermometers are mounted on a special stand in the meteorological booth.

Slide 5

Hygrometer A device for measuring air humidity. There are several types of hygrometers, the action of which is based on different principles: weight, hair, film, etc. A film hygrometer has a sensitive element made of an organic film, which stretches when humidity increases and contracts when humidity decreases. The change in the position of the center of the film membrane 1 is transmitted to arrow 2. In winter, a film hygrometer is the main instrument for measuring air humidity.

Slide 6

Hygrograph Hygrograph (ancient Greek ὑγρός - wet and γράφω - writing) is a device for continuous recording of relative air humidity. The sensitive element of the hygrograph is a bunch of fat-free human hair or an organic film. The recording takes place on a graphed tape placed on a drum rotated by a clock mechanism. Depending on the duration of the drum rotation, hygrographs are available daily or weekly.

Slide 7

Barometer Barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The most common are: liquid barometers, based on balancing atmospheric pressure with the weight of a liquid column; deformation barometers, the operating principle of which is based on elastic deformations of the membrane box. The most accurate standard instruments are mercury barometers: due to its high density, mercury makes it possible to obtain a relatively small column of liquid in the barometer, convenient for measurement. Mercury barometers are two communicating vessels filled with mercury; one of them is a glass tube about 90 cm long sealed at the top, containing no air. The measure of atmospheric pressure is the pressure of a column of mercury, expressed in mmHg. Art. or in mbar.

Slide 8

Aneroid (from the Greek a - negative particle, nērys - water, i.e. acting without the help of liquid) Aneroid barometer, a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The receiving part of the aneroid is a round metal box with corrugated bases, inside of which a strong vacuum is created. When atmospheric pressure increases, the box contracts and pulls the spring attached to it; when the pressure decreases, the spring unbends and the upper base of the box rises. The movement of the end of the spring is transmitted to a pointer moving along the scale. An arc-shaped thermometer is attached to the scale, which serves to correct the temperature readings.

Slide 9

Actinometer Actinometer (from the Greek ακτίς - ray and μέτρον - measure) is a measuring device that is used to measure the intensity of electromagnetic radiation, mainly visible and ultraviolet light. In meteorology, it is used to measure direct solar radiation. An actinometer is also a name given to instruments that measure the amount of radiant heat emitted into celestial space.

Slide 10

Albedometer Albedometer is a device for measuring albedo. It works on the principle of an integral ball photometer. The albedo of the earth's surface is measured with a pass-through albedometer - two connected pyranometers, the receiving surface of one of which is turned to the ground and perceives scattered light, the second - to the sky and registers the incident radiation. They also use one pyranometer, the receiving surface of which rotates up and down.

Slide 11

Anemometer Anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed. Based on the design of the receiving part, there are two main types of anemometers: a) cup anemometers - for measuring the average wind speed of any direction within the range of 1-20 m/s; b) winged - for measuring the average speed of directed air flow from 0.3 to 5 m/s. Vane anemometers are mainly used in pipes and ducts of ventilation systems. Three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometer The operating principle of ultrasonic anemometers is to measure the speed of sound, which changes depending on the direction of the wind. There are two-dimensional ultrasonic anemometers, three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometers and hot-wire anemometers. The 2D anemometer is capable of measuring the speed and direction of horizontal wind. A three-dimensional anemometer measures primary physical parameters - pulse travel times, and then converts them into three components of wind direction. The hot-wire anemometer, in addition to three components of wind direction, is also capable of measuring air temperature using the ultrasonic method.

Slide 12

Hypsothermometer (from the Greek hýpsos - height) is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure by the temperature of a boiling liquid. The boiling of a liquid occurs when the elasticity of the vapor formed in it reaches the external pressure. By measuring the temperature of the steam of a boiling liquid, the value of atmospheric pressure is found using special tables. The hypsothermometer consists of a special thermometer 1, which allows you to read the temperature with an accuracy of 0.01°, and a boiler, which consists of a metal vessel 3 with distilled water and an extendable tube 2 with double walls. The thermometer is placed inside this tube and washed with steam from boiling water. Hypsothermometers are produced in which the divisions on the thermometer scale are marked in pressure units (mm Hg or mb).

Electrometer Mechanical electrometers are now used almost exclusively for educational purposes. They were widely used in science and technology back in the first third of the 20th century (in particular, in studies of radioactivity and cosmic rays, the rate of charge loss caused by ionization of air by ionizing radiation was measured using electrometers). Modern electrometers are electronic voltmeters with a very high input resistance, reaching 1014 ohms.

Slide 15

Weather vane (Dutch Vleugel) is a meteorological instrument for measuring the direction (sometimes speed) of the wind. The weather vane is a metal flag located on a vertical axis and rotating under the influence of the wind. The flag's counterweight is directed in the direction from which the wind is blowing. The direction of the wind can be determined by horizontal pins oriented along eight-point lines, and on modern weather vanes - using an electronic device (encoder).

Meteorological instruments

instruments and installations for measuring and recording the values of meteorological elements (See Meteorological elements). M. p. are designed to work in natural conditions in any climatic zones. Therefore, they must work flawlessly, maintaining stable readings in a wide range of temperatures, high humidity, precipitation, and should not be afraid of high wind loads and dust. To compare the results of measurements made at different weather stations, meteorological stations are made of the same type and installed so that their readings do not depend on random local conditions.

Meteorological thermometers of various types and thermographs are used to measure (record) air and soil temperatures. Air humidity is measured by Psychrometer, Hygrometer, hygrographs, atmospheric pressure - Barometer, Aneroid , barographs, gypsothermometer ami. An anemometer is used to measure wind speed and direction. , anemographs, anemorumbometers, anemorumbographs, weather vanes. The amount and intensity of precipitation is determined using rain gauges, precipitation gauges, and pluviographs. The intensity of solar radiation, radiation of the earth's surface and atmosphere is measured by Pyrheliometer ami, Pyrgeometer ami, Actinometer ami, Pyranometer ami , pyranographs, Albedometer ami, Balance meter ami , and the duration of sunshine is recorded by the Heliograph. The water reserve in the snow cover is measured by a snow meter , dew - rosographer , evaporation - with an evaporator (See Evaporator), visibility - with a nephelometer and visibility meter, elements of atmospheric electricity - with an electrometer, etc. Remote and automatic measuring devices for measuring one or more meteorological elements are becoming increasingly important.

Lit.: Kedrolivansky V.N., Sternzat M.S., Meteorological Instruments, Leningrad, 1953; Sternzat M.S., Meteorological instruments and observations, Leningrad, 1968; Handbook of hydrometeorological instruments and installations, L., 1971.

S.I. Nepomnyashchy.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

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Nastich Nadezhda Valentinovna

Thermometer

Thermometer is a device for measuring the temperature of air, soil, water, and so on. There are several types of thermometers:

liquid;

mechanical;

electronic;

optical;

infrared.

Psychrometer

A psychrometer is a device for measuring air humidity and temperature. The simplest psychrometer consists of two alcohol thermometers. One thermometer is dry, and the second has a humidification device. The alcohol flask of a wet thermometer is wrapped in cambric tape, the end of which is in a vessel with water. Due to the evaporation of moisture, the moistened thermometer cools.

Barometer

Barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The mercury barometer was invented by the Italian mathematician and physicist Evangelista Torricelli in 1644; it was a plate with mercury poured into it and a test tube (flask) placed with the hole down. When atmospheric pressure increased, the mercury in the test tube rose, and when it decreased, the mercury fell.

Mechanical barometers are usually used in everyday life. There is no liquid in the aneroid. Translated from Greek, “aneroid” means “without water.” It shows the atmospheric pressure acting on a corrugated thin-walled metal box in which a vacuum is created.

Anemometer

Anemometer, wind meter - a device for measuring the speed of movement of gases and air in systems, for example, ventilation. In meteorology it is used to measure wind speed.

Based on the principle of operation, mechanical anemometers, thermal anemometers, and ultrasonic anemometers are distinguished.

The most common type of anemometer is the cup anemometer. Invented by Dr John Thomas Romney Robinson, who worked at the Armagh Observatory, in 1846. It consists of four hemispherical cups, symmetrically mounted on the cross-shaped spokes of a rotor rotating on a vertical axis.

Wind from any direction rotates the rotor at a speed proportional to the wind speed.

Precipitation gauge

A precipitation gauge, rain gauge, pluviometer or pluviograph is a device for measuring atmospheric liquid and solid precipitation.

The device of the Tretyakov precipitation gauge

The precipitation gauge set consists of two metal vessels for collecting and storing precipitation, one lid for them, a tagan for installing precipitation vessels, wind protection and two measuring cups.

Pluviograph

A device designed for continuous recording of the amount and intensity of liquid precipitation with reference to time (beginning of precipitation, end, etc.), and on modern weather vanes - using an electronic device.

A weather vane often serves as a decorative element to decorate a home. The weather vane can also be used to protect the chimney from blowing out.

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Meteorological instruments

Plan

Introduction

1. Weather site

1.1 Meteorological indicators measured at weather stations and instruments used to measure these indicators

1.2 Environmental performance

1.3 Meteorological site - requirements for placement. Construction and equipment of weather sites

1.4 Organization of meteorological observations

2. Meteorological instruments

2.1 To measure air pressure, use

2.2 To measure air temperature use

2.3 To determine humidity use

2.4 To determine wind speed and direction, use

2.5 To determine the amount of precipitation use

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere, its composition, structure, properties, physical and chemical processes occurring in the atmosphere. These processes have a great impact on human life.

A person needs to have an idea of the weather conditions that were, are and, most importantly, will accompany his existence on Earth. Without knowledge of weather conditions, it is impossible to properly conduct agricultural work, build and operate industrial enterprises, and ensure the normal functioning of transport, especially aviation and water transport.

At present, when there is an unfavorable ecological situation on Earth, without knowledge of the laws of meteorology it is unthinkable to predict environmental pollution, and failure to take into account weather conditions can lead to even greater pollution. Modern urbanization (the desire of the population to live in large cities) leads to the emergence of new, including meteorological, problems: for example, ventilation of cities and a local increase in air temperature in them. In turn, taking into account weather conditions makes it possible to reduce the harmful effects of polluted air (and, consequently, water and soil on which these substances are deposited from the atmosphere) on the human body.

The objectives of meteorology are to describe the state of the atmosphere at a given time, forecast its state for the future, develop environmental recommendations and, ultimately, provide conditions for safe and comfortable human existence.

Meteorological observations are measurements of meteorological quantities, as well as recording atmospheric phenomena. Meteorological quantities include: temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, amount and height of clouds, amount of precipitation, heat flows, etc. They are joined by quantities that do not directly reflect the properties of the atmosphere or atmospheric processes, but are closely related to them . These are the temperature of the soil and surface layer of water, evaporation, height and condition of snow cover, duration of sunshine, etc. Some stations make observations of solar and terrestrial radiation and atmospheric electricity.

Atmospheric phenomena include: thunderstorm, blizzard, dust storm, fog, a number of optical phenomena such as blue sky, rainbow, crowns, etc.

Meteorological observations of the state of the atmosphere beyond the surface layer and up to altitudes of about 40 km are called aerological observations. Observations of the state of the high layers of the atmosphere can be called aeronomic. They differ from aerological observations both in methodology and in observed parameters.

The most complete and accurate observations are made at meteorological and aerological observatories. The number of such observatories, however, is small. In addition, even the most accurate observations, but made at a small number of points, cannot provide a comprehensive picture of the state of the entire atmosphere, since atmospheric processes occur differently in different geographical settings. Therefore, in addition to meteorological observatories, observations of the main meteorological quantities are carried out at approximately 3,500 meteorological and 750 aerological stations located throughout the globe. weather weather site atmosphere

1. Weather site

Meteorological observations are then and only then comparable, accurate, meeting the objectives of the meteorological service when the requirements, instructions and instructions are met when installing instruments, and when making observations and processing materials by weather station workers strictly adhere to the instructions of the listed manuals. weather meteorological instrument atmosphere

A meteorological station (weather station) is an institution in which regular observations of the state of the atmosphere and atmospheric processes are carried out around the clock, including monitoring changes in individual meteorological elements (temperature, pressure, air humidity, wind speed and direction, cloudiness and precipitation, etc. ). The station has a meteorological site where the main meteorological instruments are located, and a closed room for processing observations. Meteorological stations of a country, region, district make up a meteorological network.

In addition to weather stations, the weather network includes weather stations that only monitor precipitation and snow cover.

Each weather station is a scientific unit of an extensive network of stations. The observation results of each station, already used in current operational work, are also valuable as a diary of meteorological processes, which can be subject to further scientific processing. Observations at each station must be carried out with the utmost care and precision. Devices must be adjusted and checked. The weather station must have the forms, books, tables, and instructions necessary for operation.

1. 1 Meteorological indicators measured at weather stations and instruments used to measure data display Ateli

· Air temperature (current, minimum and maximum), °C, - standard, minimum and maximum thermometers.

· Water temperature (current), °C, - standard thermometer.

· Soil temperature (current), °C, - angular thermometer.

· Atmospheric pressure, Pa, mm Hg. Art., - barometer (including aneroid barometer).

· Air humidity: relative humidity, %, - hygrometer and psychrometer; partial pressure of water vapor, mV; dew point, °C.

· Wind: wind speed (instantaneous, average and maximum), m/s, - anemometer; wind direction - in degrees of arc and bearings - weather vanes.

· Precipitation: quantity (thickness of the layer of water that fell on a horizontal surface), mm, - Tretyakov precipitation gauge, pluviograph; type (solid, liquid); intensity, mm/min; duration (start, end), hours and minutes.

· Snow cover: density, g/cm 3 ; water reserve (thickness of the water layer formed when the snow completely melts), mm, - snowmeter; height, cm

· Cloudiness: amount - in points; height of the lower and upper boundaries, m, - cloud height indicator; shape - according to the Cloud Atlas.

· Visibility: transparency of the atmosphere, %; meteorological visibility range (expert assessment), m or km.

· Solar radiation: duration of sunshine, hours and minutes; energy illumination, W/m2; radiation dose, J/cm2.

1.2 Environmental indicators

· Radioactivity: air - in curies or microroentgens per hour; water - in curies per cubic meter; soil surface - in curies per square meter; snow cover - in x-rays; precipitation - in roentgens per second - radiometers and dosimeters.

· Air pollution: most often measured in milligrams per cubic meter of air - chromatographs.

1.3 Meteorological site - accommodation requirements. Device and equipmentOlocation of meteorological sites

The meteorological site should be located in an open area at a considerable distance from the forest and residential buildings, especially multi-story buildings. Placing instruments away from buildings allows one to eliminate measurement errors associated with re-radiation of buildings or tall objects, correctly measure wind speed and direction, and ensure normal precipitation collection.

The requirements for a standard meteorological site are:

· size - 26x26 meters (the sites where actinometric observations (solar radiation measurements) are made have a size of 26x36 m)

· orientation of the sides of the site - clearly north, south, west, east (if the site is rectangular, then the orientation of the long side is from north to south)

· the location for the site should be typical for the surrounding area with a radius of 20-30 km

· the distance to low buildings and isolated trees should be at least 10 times their height, and the distance from a continuous forest or urban area - at least 20 times

· distance to ravines, cliffs, water edge - at least 100 m

· to avoid disruption of the natural cover at the meteorological site, it is allowed to walk only on paths

· all instruments at the meteorological site are placed according to a single scheme, which provides for the same orientation to the cardinal points, a certain height above the ground and other parameters

· the site fence and all auxiliary equipment (stands, booths, ladders, poles, masts, etc.) are painted white to prevent them from excessive heating by the sun's rays, which can affect the accuracy of measurements

· At meteorological stations, in addition to measurements using instruments (air and ground temperature, wind direction and speed, atmospheric pressure, amount of precipitation), visual observations of clouds and visibility range are made.

If the grass cover on the site grows strongly in the summer, then the grass must be mowed or trimmed, leaving no more than 30-40 cm. The cut grass must be removed from the site immediately. The snow cover on the site should not be disturbed, but in the spring it is necessary to remove snow or accelerate its melting by scattering or removing snow from the site. Snow is cleared from the roofs of the booths and from the protective funnel of the precipitation gauge. Devices on the site must be placed so that they do not shade each other. Thermometers should be 2 m from the ground. The booth door should face north. The ladder should not touch the booth.

The following instruments are used at basic type weather sites:

· thermometers for measuring air temperature (including horizontal minimum and horizontal maximum) and soil (they are tilted for ease of reading);

· barometers of various types (most often - aneroid barometers for measuring air pressure). They can be placed indoors rather than outdoors, since the air pressure is the same both indoors and outdoors;

· psychrometers and hygrometers for determining atmospheric humidity;

· anemometers for determining wind speed;

· weather vanes to determine the direction of the wind (sometimes anemormbographs are used, combining the functions of measuring and recording wind speed and direction);

· cloud height indicators (for example, IVO-1M); recording instruments (thermograph, hygrograph, pluviograph).

· precipitation gauges and snow gauges; Tretyakov precipitation gauges are most often used at weather stations.

In addition to the listed indicators, cloudiness is recorded at weather stations (the degree of cloud coverage of the sky, the type of clouds); the presence and intensity of various precipitation (dew, frost, ice), as well as fog; horizontal visibility; duration of sunshine; soil surface condition; height and density of snow cover. The weather station also records snowstorms, squalls, tornadoes, haze, storms, thunderstorms, and rainbows.

1.4 Organization of meteorological observations

All observations are entered with a simple pencil into established books or forms immediately after the reading of one or another device. Recordings from memory are not allowed. All corrections are made by crossing out the corrected numbers (so that they can still be read) and signing new ones at the top; Erasing numbers and text is not allowed. A clear record is especially important, facilitating both the initial processing of observations at the station and their use by Hydrometeorological Centers.

If observations are missed, the corresponding column of the book must remain blank. In such cases, it is completely unacceptable to enter any calculated results for the purpose of “restoring” observations, since the estimated data can easily turn out to be erroneous and cause more harm than missing readings from instruments. All cases of interruptions are noted on the observations page. It should be noted that gaps in observations devalue the entire work of the station, and therefore continuity of observations should be the basic rule for each weather station.

Readings made inaccurately on time are also significantly devalued. In such cases, in the column where the observation period is noted, the countdown time of the dry thermometer in the psychrometric booth is written.

The time spent on observations depends on the station equipment. In any case, readings should be made quickly enough, but, of course, not at the expense of accuracy.

A preliminary walkthrough of all installations is carried out 10-15 minutes, and in winter - half an hour before the due date. It is necessary to make sure that they are in good working order, and to prepare some instruments for the upcoming readings in order to guarantee the accuracy of observations, to make sure that the psychrometer is working, and the cambric is sufficiently saturated with water, that the pens of the recorders write correctly and there is enough ink.

In addition to readings from instruments and visual determination of visibility and cloudiness, recorded in separate columns of the book, the observer notes in the column “atmospheric phenomena” the beginning and end, type and intensity of such phenomena as precipitation, fog, dew, frost, frost, ice and others. To do this, it is necessary to carefully and continuously monitor the weather and in the intervals between urgent observations.

Weather observations must be long-term and continuous and carried out strictly. In accordance with international standards. For comparability, measurements of meteorological parameters throughout the world are carried out simultaneously (i.e. synchronously): at 00, 03, 06.09, 12, 15, 18 and 21 o'clock Greenwich time (zero time, Greenwich meridian). These are the so-called synoptic dates. The measurement results are immediately transmitted to the weather service via computer communication, telephone, telegraph or radio. Synoptic maps are compiled there and weather forecasts are developed.

Some meteorological measurements are carried out on their own terms: precipitation is measured four times a day, snow depth - once a day, snow density - once every five to ten days.

Stations providing weather service, after processing observations, encrypt weather data to send synoptic telegrams to the Hydrometeorological Center. The purpose of encryption is to significantly reduce the volume of a telegram while maximizing the amount of information sent. Obviously, digital encryption is most suitable for this purpose. In 1929, the International Meteorological Conference developed a meteorological code with which it was possible to describe the state of the atmosphere in full detail. This code was used for almost 20 years with only minor changes. On January 1, 1950, a new international code came into force, significantly different from the old one.

2 . Meteorological instruments

The range of measuring instruments used to monitor the state of the atmosphere and to study it is unusually wide: from the simplest thermometers to probing laser installations and special meteorological satellites. Meteorological instruments usually refer to those instruments that are used to take measurements at meteorological stations. These instruments are relatively simple; they satisfy the requirement of uniformity, which makes it possible to compare observations from different stations.

Meteorological instruments are installed on the station site in the open air. Only instruments for measuring pressure (barometers) are installed in the station premises, since there is practically no difference between the air pressure in the open air and indoors.

Instruments for measuring temperature and air humidity must be protected from solar radiation, precipitation and gusts of wind. Therefore, they are placed in specially designed booths, the so-called meteorological booths. Recording instruments are installed at the stations, providing continuous recording of the most important meteorological quantities (temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure and wind). Recording instruments are often designed so that their sensors are located on the platform or roof of a building in the open air, and the recording parts connected to the sensors by electrical transmission are inside the building.

Now let's look at instruments designed to measure individual meteorological elements.

2.1 To measure air pressure andWithenjoy

Barometer (Fig. 1) - (from the Greek baros - heaviness, weight and metreo - I measure), a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Figure 1 - Types of mercury barometers

Barometer (Fig. 1) - (from the Greek baros - heaviness, weight and metreo - I measure), a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The most common are: liquid barometers, based on balancing atmospheric pressure with the weight of a liquid column; deformation barometers, the operating principle of which is based on elastic deformations of the membrane box; hypsothermometers based on the dependence of the boiling point of certain liquids, such as water, on external pressure.

The most accurate standard instruments are mercury barometers: due to its high density, mercury makes it possible to obtain a relatively small column of liquid in barometers, convenient for measurement. Mercury barometers are two communicating vessels filled with mercury; one of them is a glass tube about 90 cm long sealed at the top, containing no air. The measure of atmospheric pressure is the pressure of a column of mercury, expressed in mmHg. Art. or in mb.

To determine atmospheric pressure, corrections are introduced into the readings of a mercury barometer: 1) instrumental, excluding manufacturing errors; 2) an amendment to bring the barometer reading to 0°C, because barometer readings depend on temperature (with temperature changes, the density of mercury and the linear dimensions of the barometer parts change); 3) a correction to bring the barometer readings to the normal acceleration of gravity (gn = 9.80665 m/sec 2), it is due to the fact that the readings of mercury barometers depend on the latitude and altitude above sea level of the observation site.

Depending on the shape of the communicating vessels, mercury barometers are divided into 3 main types: cup, siphon and siphon-cup. Cup and siphon-cup barometers are practically used. At meteorological stations they use a station cup barometer. It consists of a barometric glass tube, lowered with its free end into bowl C. The entire barometric tube is enclosed in a brass frame, in the upper part of which a vertical slot is made; On the edge of the slot there is a scale for measuring the position of the meniscus of the mercury column. For precise aiming at the top of the meniscus and counting tenths, a special sight n is used, equipped with a vernier and moved by screw b. The height of the mercury column is measured by the position of the mercury in the glass tube, and the change in the position of the mercury level in the cup is taken into account using a compensated scale so that the reading on the scale is obtained directly in millibars. Each barometer has a small mercury thermometer T for entering temperature corrections. Cup barometers are available with measurement limits of 810--1070 mb and 680--1070 mb; counting accuracy 0.1 mb.

A siphon-cup barometer is used as a control barometer. It consists of two tubes lowered into a barometric bowl. One of the tubes is closed, and the other communicates with the atmosphere. When measuring pressure, the bottom of the cup is raised with a screw, bringing the meniscus in the open knee to scale zero, and then the position of the meniscus in the closed knee is measured. Pressure is determined by the difference in mercury levels in both knees. The measurement limit of this barometer is 880--1090 mb, the reading accuracy is 0.05 mb.

All mercury barometers are absolute instruments, because According to their readings, atmospheric pressure is directly measured.

Aneroid (Fig. 2) - (from the Greek a - negative particle, nerys - water, i.e. acting without the help of liquid), aneroid barometer, a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The receiving part of the aneroid is a round metal box A with corrugated bases, inside of which a strong vacuum is created

Figure 2 - Aneroid

When atmospheric pressure increases, the box contracts and pulls the spring attached to it; when the pressure decreases, the spring unbends and the upper base of the box rises. The movement of the end of the spring is transmitted to the arrow B, which moves along the scale C. (In the latest designs, more elastic boxes are used instead of a spring.) An arc-shaped thermometer is attached to the aneroid scale, which serves to correct the aneroid readings for temperature. To obtain the true pressure value, the aneroid readings require corrections, which are determined by comparison with a mercury barometer. There are three corrections to the aneroid: on the scale - depends on the fact that the aneroid reacts differently to changes in pressure in different parts of the scale; on temperature - due to the dependence of the elastic properties of the aneroid box and spring on temperature; additional, due to changes in the elastic properties of the box and spring over time. The error in aneroid measurements is 1-2 mb. Due to their portability, aneroids are widely used on expeditions and also as altimeters. In the latter case, the aneroid scale is graduated in meters.

2.2 For measurementair temperatures are used

Meteorological thermometers are a group of liquid thermometers of a special design, intended for meteorological measurements mainly at meteorological stations. Depending on their purpose, different thermometers differ in size, design, measurement limits and scale divisions.

To determine the temperature and humidity of the air, mercury psychrometric thermometers are used in a stationary and aspiration psychrometer. The price of their division is 0.2°C; the lower limit of measurement is -35°C, the upper limit is 40°C (or -25°C and 50°C, respectively). At temperatures below -35°C (close to the freezing point of mercury), the readings of a mercury thermometer become unreliable; Therefore, to measure lower temperatures, they use a low-degree alcohol thermometer, the device of which is similar to a psychrometric one, the scale division value is 0.5 ° C, and the measurement limits vary: the lower one is -75, -65, -60 °C, and the upper one is 20, 25 °C .

Figure 3 - Thermometer

To measure the maximum temperature over a certain period of time, a mercury maximum thermometer is used (Fig. 3). Its scale division is 0.5°C; measurement range from -35 to 50°C (or from -20 to 70°C), working position almost horizontal (tank slightly lowered). The maximum temperature readings are maintained due to the presence of a pin 2 in the reservoir 1 and a vacuum in the capillary 3 above the mercury. As the temperature increases, excess mercury from the reservoir is forced into the capillary through a narrow ring-shaped hole between the pin and the walls of the capillary and remains there even when the temperature decreases (since there is a vacuum in the capillary). Thus, the position of the end of the mercury column relative to the scale corresponds to the maximum temperature value. Bringing the thermometer readings into line with the current temperature is done by shaking it. To measure the minimum temperature over a certain period of time, alcohol minimum thermometers are used. Scale division value is 0.5°C; the lower measurement limit varies from -75 to -41°C, the upper from 21 to 41°C. The working position of the thermometer is horizontal. Maintaining the minimum values is ensured by a pin - indicator 2 located in capillary 1 inside the alcohol. The thickening of the pin is smaller than the internal diameter of the capillary; therefore, as the temperature rises, the alcohol flowing from the reservoir into the capillary flows around the pin without displacing it. When the temperature decreases, the pin, after contacting the meniscus of the alcohol column, moves with it to the reservoir (since the surface tension forces of the alcohol film are greater than the friction forces) and remains in the position closest to the reservoir. The position of the end of the pin closest to the alcohol meniscus indicates the minimum temperature, and the meniscus indicates the current temperature. Before installing into the working position, the minimum thermometer is raised with the reservoir upward and held until the pin drops to the alcohol meniscus. A mercury thermometer is used to determine the temperature of the soil surface. Its scale divisions are 0.5°C; measurement limits vary: lower from -35 to -10°C, upper from 60 to 85°C. Soil temperature measurements at depths of 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm are made with a mercury crank thermometer (Savinov). Its scale division is 0.5°C; measurement limits from -10 to 50°C. Near the reservoir, the thermometer is bent at an angle of 135°, and the capillary from the reservoir to the beginning of the scale is thermally insulated, which reduces the influence on the T readings of the soil layer lying above its reservoir. Measurements of soil temperature at depths of up to several m are carried out with mercury soil-depth thermometers placed in special installations. Its scale division is 0.2 °C; measurement limits vary: lower -20, -10°С, and upper 30, 40°С. Less common are mercury-thallium psychrometric thermometers with limits from -50 to 35°C and some others.

In addition to the meteorological thermometer, resistance thermometers, thermoelectric, transistor, bimetallic, radiation, etc. are used in meteorology. Resistance thermometers are widely used in remote and automatic weather stations (metal resistors - copper or platinum) and in radiosondes (semiconductor resistors); thermoelectric ones are used to measure temperature gradients; transistor thermometers (thermotransistors) - in agrometeorology, for measuring the temperature of the topsoil; bimetallic thermometers (thermal converters) are used in thermographs to record temperature, radiation thermometers - in ground-based, aircraft and satellite installations to measure the temperature of various parts of the Earth's surface and cloud formations.

2.3 For ohumidity determinations are used

Figure 4 - Psychrometer

Psychrometer (Fig. 4) - (from the Greek psychros - cold and... meter), a device for measuring air humidity and its temperature. Consists of two thermometers - dry and wet. A dry thermometer shows the air temperature, and a wet thermometer, the heat sink of which is tied with wet cambric, shows its own temperature, depending on the intensity of evaporation occurring from the surface of its reservoir. Due to the heat consumption for evaporation, the wet-bulb thermometer readings are lower, the drier the air whose humidity is measured.

Based on the readings of dry and wet thermometers using a psychrometric table, nomograms or rulers calculated using a psychrometric formula, the water vapor pressure or relative humidity is determined. At negative temperatures below - 5°C, when the content of water vapor in the air is very low, the psychrometer gives unreliable results, so in this case a hair hygrometer is used.

Figure 5 - Types of hygrometers

There are several types of psychrometers: stationary, aspiration and remote. In station psychrometers, the thermometers are mounted on a special tripod in the meteorological booth. The main disadvantage of station psychrometers is the dependence of the wet-bulb readings on the air flow speed in the booth. In an aspiration psychrometer, the thermometers are mounted in a special frame that protects them from damage and the thermal effects of direct sunlight, and are blown using an aspirator (fan) with a flow of the air being tested at a constant speed of about 2 m/sec. At positive air temperatures, an aspiration psychrometer is the most reliable device for measuring air humidity and temperature. Remote psychrometers use resistance thermometers, thermistors, and thermocouples.

Hygrometer (Fig. 5) - (from hygro and meter), a device for measuring air humidity. There are several types of hygrometers, the operation of which is based on different principles: weight, hair, film, etc. A weight (absolute) hygrometer consists of a system of U-shaped tubes filled with a hygroscopic substance capable of absorbing moisture from the air. A certain amount of air is drawn through this system by a pump, the humidity of which is determined. Knowing the mass of the system before and after measurement, as well as the volume of air passed through, the absolute humidity is found.

The action of a hair hygrometer is based on the property of defatted human hair to change its length when air humidity changes, which allows you to measure relative humidity from 30 to 100%. Hair 1 is stretched over a metal frame 2. The change in hair length is transmitted to arrow 3 moving along the scale. A film hygrometer has a sensitive element made of an organic film, which expands when humidity increases and contracts when humidity decreases. The change in the position of the center of the film membrane 1 is transmitted to arrow 2. Hair and film hygrometers in winter are the main instruments for measuring air humidity. The readings of the hair and film hygrometer are periodically compared with the readings of a more accurate device - a psychrometer, which is also used to measure air humidity.

In an electrolytic hygrometer, a plate of electrical insulating material (glass, polystyrene) is coated with a hygroscopic layer of electrolyte - lithium chloride - with a binder material. When air humidity changes, the concentration of the electrolyte changes, and therefore its resistance; The disadvantage of this hygrometer is that the readings depend on temperature.

The action of a ceramic hygrometer is based on the dependence of the electrical resistance of solid and porous ceramic mass (a mixture of clay, silicon, kaolin and some metal oxides) on air humidity. A condensation hygrometer determines the dew point by the temperature of a cooled metal mirror at the moment when traces of water (or ice) condensing from the surrounding air appear on it. A condensation hygrometer consists of a device for cooling the mirror, an optical or electrical device that records the moment of condensation, and a thermometer that measures the temperature of the mirror. In modern condensation hygrometers, a semiconductor element is used to cool the mirror, the operating principle of which is based on the Lash effect, and the temperature of the mirror is measured by a wire resistance or semiconductor microthermometer built into it. Heated electrolytic hygrometers are becoming increasingly common, the operation of which is based on the principle of measuring the dew point over a saturated salt solution (usually lithium chloride), which for a given salt is in a certain dependence on humidity. The sensitive element consists of a resistance thermometer, the body of which is covered with a fiberglass stocking soaked in a solution of lithium chloride, and two platinum wire electrodes wound over the stocking, to which an alternating voltage is applied.

2.4 To determine speedand wind directions are used

Figure 6 - Anemometer

Anemometer (Fig. 6) - (from anemo... and...meter), a device for measuring wind speed and gas flows. The most common is a hand-held cup anemometer, which measures average wind speed. A horizontal cross with 4 hollow hemispheres (cups), convexly facing one way, rotates under the influence of the wind, since the pressure on the concave hemisphere is greater than on the convex hemisphere. This rotation is transmitted to the arrows of the revolution counter. The number of revolutions for a given period of time corresponds to a certain average wind speed for this time. With a small flow vorticity, the average wind speed over 100 sec is determined with an error of up to 0.1 m/sec. To determine the average speed of air flow in pipes and channels of ventilation systems, vane anemometers are used, the receiving part of which is a multi-blade mill turntable. The error of these anemometers is up to 0.05 m/sec. Instantaneous wind speed values are determined by other types of anemometers, in particular anemometers based on the manometric measurement method, as well as hot-wire anemometers.

Figure 7 - Weather vane

Weather vane (Fig. 7) - (from German Flugel or Dutch vieugel - wing), a device for determining the direction and measuring wind speed. The direction of the wind (see Fig.) is determined by the position of a two-blade wind vane, consisting of 2 plates 1, located at an angle, and a counterweight 2. The weather vane, being mounted on a metal tube 3, rotates freely on a steel rod. Under the influence of wind, it is installed in the direction of the wind so that the counterweight is directed towards it. The rod is fitted with a coupling 4 with pins oriented according to the main directions. The position of the counterweight relative to these pins determines the direction of the wind.

Wind speed is measured using a metal plate (board) 6 suspended vertically on a horizontal axis 5. The board rotates around a vertical axis together with the wind vane and, under the influence of the wind, is always set perpendicular to the air flow. Depending on the wind speed, the weather vane board deviates from its vertical position by one or another angle, measured along arc 7. The weather vane is placed on the mast at a height of 10-12 m from the ground surface.

2.5 To determineI use precipitation amounts

A precipitation gauge is a device for measuring atmospheric liquid and solid precipitation. Precipitation gauge designed by V.D. Tretyakov consists of a vessel (bucket) with a receiving area of 200 cm2 and a height of 40 cm, where precipitation is collected, and special protection that prevents precipitation from being blown out of it. The bucket is installed so that the receiving surface of the bucket is at a height of 2 m above the soil. The amount of precipitation in mm of water layer is measured using a measuring cup with divisions marked on it; The amount of solid precipitation is measured after it has melted.

Figure 8 - Pluviograph

Pluviograph is a device for continuous recording of the amount, duration and intensity of falling liquid precipitation. It consists of a receiver and a recording part, enclosed in a metal cabinet 1.3 m high.

Receiving vessel with a cross section of 500 square meters. cm, located at the top of the cabinet, has a cone-shaped bottom with several holes for water drainage. Sediment through funnel 1 and drain tube 2 falls into a cylindrical chamber 3, in which a hollow metal float 4 is placed. On the upper part of the vertical rod 5 connected to the float, there is an arrow 6 with a feather mounted on its end. To record precipitation, a drum 7 with a daily rotation is installed next to the float chamber on the rod. A tape is placed on the drum, laid out in such a way that the intervals between the vertical lines correspond to 10 minutes of time, and between the horizontal ones - 0.1 mm of precipitation. On the side of the float chamber there is a hole with a tube 8 into which a glass siphon 9 with a metal tip is inserted, tightly connected to the tube with a special coupling 10. When precipitation occurs, water enters the float chamber through the drain holes, funnel and drain tube and raises the float. Along with the float, the rod with the arrow also rises. In this case, the pen draws a curve on the tape (since the drum rotates at the same time), the steeper the steeper the curve, the greater the intensity of precipitation. When the amount of precipitation reaches 10 mm, the water level in the siphon tube and the float chamber becomes the same, and water spontaneously drains from the chamber through the siphon into a bucket standing at the bottom of the cabinet. In this case, the pen should draw a vertical straight line on the tape from top to bottom to the zero mark of the tape. In the absence of precipitation, the pen draws a horizontal line.

Snow meter is a density meter, a device for measuring the density of snow cover. The main part of the snow gauge is a hollow cylinder of a certain cross-section with a sawtooth edge, which, when measured, is immersed vertically in the snow until it comes into contact with the underlying surface, and then the cut column of snow is removed along with the cylinder. If the taken snow sample is weighed, then the snow meter is called a weight meter; if it is melted and the volume of water formed is determined, then it is called a volumetric one. The density of the snow cover is found by calculating the ratio of the mass of the sample taken to its volume. Gamma snow meters are beginning to be used, based on measuring the attenuation of gamma radiation by snow from a source placed at a certain depth in the snow cover.

Conclusion

The operating principles of a number of meteorological instruments were proposed back in the 17th-19th centuries. The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. characterized by the unification of basic meteorological instruments and the creation of national and international meteorological networks of stations. From the mid-40s. XX century Rapid progress is being made in meteorological instrumentation. New devices are being designed using the achievements of modern physics and technology: thermal and photoelements, semiconductors, radio communications and radar, lasers, various chemical reactions, sound location. Particularly noteworthy is the use of radar, radiometric and spectrometric equipment installed on meteorological artificial Earth satellites (MES) for meteorological purposes, as well as the development of laser methods for sensing the atmosphere. On the radar screen you can detect cloud clusters, areas of precipitation, thunderstorms, atmospheric vortices in the tropics (hurricanes and typhoons) at a considerable distance from the observer and trace their movement and evolution. The equipment installed on the satellite makes it possible to see clouds and cloud systems from above day and night, track changes in temperature with altitude, measure the wind over the oceans, etc. The use of lasers makes it possible to accurately determine small impurities of natural and anthropogenic origin, the optical properties of a cloudless atmosphere and clouds, the speed of their movement, etc. The widespread use of electronics (and, in particular, personal computers) significantly automates the processing of measurements, simplifies and speeds up obtaining final results. results. The creation of semi-automatic and fully automatic meteorological stations is being successfully implemented, transmitting their observations for a more or less long time without human intervention.

Literature

1. Morgunov V.K. Fundamentals of meteorology, climatology. Meteorological instruments and observation methods. Novosibirsk, 2005.

2. Sternzat M.S. Meteorological instruments and observations. St. Petersburg, 1968.

3. Khromov S.P. Meteorology and climatology. Moscow, 2004.

4. www.pogoda.ru.net

5. www.ecoera.ucoz.ru

6. www.meteoclubsgu.ucoz.ru

7. www.propogodu.ru

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