Types of artistic expression. Means of expression in a poem. What are means of expressive speech?

TRAILS AND STYLISTIC FIGURES.

TRAILS (Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech) - words or figures of speech in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Paths are an important element of artistic thinking. Types of tropes: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, etc.

STYLISTIC FIGURES- figures of speech used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement: anaphora, epiphora, ellipse, antithesis, parallelism, gradation, inversion, etc.

HYPERBOLA (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - a type of trope based on exaggeration (“rivers of blood”, “sea of ​​laughter”). By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. Hyperbole is already found in ancient epics among different peoples, in particular in Russian epics.
In the Russian litera, N.V. Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin and especially

V. Mayakovsky (“I”, “Napoleon”, “150,000,000”). In poetic speech, hyperbole is often intertwinedwith other artistic means (metaphors, personification, comparisons, etc.). Opposite – litotes.

LITOTA ( Greek litotes - simplicity) - a trope opposite to hyperbole; a figurative expression, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, or significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes is found in folk tales: “a boy as big as a finger,” “a hut on chicken legs,” “a little man as big as a fingernail.”
The second name for litotes is meiosis. The opposite of litotes is hyperbola.

N. Gogol often turned to litotes:
“Such a small mouth that it can’t miss more than two pieces” N. Gogol

METAPHOR (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope, a hidden figurative comparison, the transfer of the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on common characteristics (“work is in full swing”, “forest of hands”, “dark personality”, “heart of stone”...). In metaphor, as opposed to

comparisons, the words “as”, “as if”, “as if” are omitted, but are implied.

Nineteenth century, iron,

Truly a cruel age!

By you into the darkness of the night, starless

A careless abandoned man!

A. Blok

Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (“water runs”), reification (“nerves of steel”), abstraction (“field of activity”), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Metaphor gives speech exceptional expressiveness:

In every carnation there is fragrant lilac,
A bee crawls in singing...
You ascended under the blue vault
Above the wandering crowd of clouds...

A. Fet

The metaphor is an undifferentiated comparison, in which, however, both members are easily seen:

With a sheaf of your oat hair
You stuck with me forever...
The dog's eyes rolled
Golden stars in the snow...

S. Yesenin

In addition to verbal metaphor, metaphorical images or extended metaphors are widespread in artistic creativity:

Ah, the bush of my head has withered,
I was sucked into song captivity,
I am condemned to hard labor of feelings
Turning the millstone of poems.

S. Yesenin

Sometimes the entire work represents a broad, expanded metaphorical image.

METONYMY (Greek metonymia - renaming) - trope; replacing one word or expression with another based on similar meanings; the use of expressions in a figurative sense ("foaming glass" - meaning wine in a glass; "the forest is noisy" - meaning trees; etc.).

The theater is already full, the boxes are sparkling;

The stalls and the chairs, everything is boiling...

A.S. Pushkin

In metonymy, a phenomenon or object is denoted using other words and concepts. At the same time, the signs or connections that bring these phenomena together are preserved; Thus, when V. Mayakovsky speaks of a “steel orator dozing in a holster,” the reader easily recognizes in this image a metonymic image of a revolver. This is the difference between metonymy and metaphor. The idea of ​​a concept in metonymy is given with the help of indirect signs or secondary meanings, but this is precisely what enhances the poetic expressiveness of speech:

You led swords to a bountiful feast;

Everything fell with a noise before you;
Europe was dying; grave sleep
Hovered over her head...

A. Pushkin

Here the metonymy is "swords" - warriors. The most common metonymy is in which the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity:

When is the shore of hell
Will take me forever
When he falls asleep forever
Feather, my joy...

A. Pushkin

Here the metonymy is “the pen falls asleep.”

PERIPHRASE (Greek periphrasis - roundabout turn, allegory) - one of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its signs, as a rule, the most characteristic ones, enhancing the figurativeness of speech. (“king of birds” instead of “eagle”, “king of beasts” - instead of “lion”)

PERSONALIZATION (prosopopoeia, personification) - a type of metaphor; transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones (the soul sings, the river plays...).

My bells

Steppe flowers!

Why are you looking at me?

Dark blue?

And what are you calling about?

On a merry day in May,

Among the uncut grass

Shaking your head?

A.K. Tolstoy

SYNECDOCHE (Greek synekdoche - correlation)- one of the tropes, a type of metonymy, consisting in the transfer of meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The most common types of synecdoche:
1) A part of a phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door -
pea coats,
overcoats,
sheepskin coats...

V. Mayakovsky

2) The whole in the meaning of the part - Vasily Terkin in a fist fight with a fascist says:

Oh, there you are! Fight with a helmet?
Well, aren't they a vile bunch!

3) The singular number in the meaning of general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

M. Lermontov

And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn...

A. Pushkin

4) Replacing a number with a set:

Millions of you. We are darkness, and darkness, and darkness.

A. Blok

5) Replacing the generic concept with a specific one:

We beat ourselves with pennies. Very good!

V. Mayakovsky

6) Replacing the specific concept with a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"

V. Mayakovsky

COMPARISON – a word or expression containing the likening of one object to another, one situation to another. (“Strong as a lion”, “said as he cut”...). The storm covers the sky with darkness,

Whirling snow whirlwinds;

The way the beast will howl,

Then he will cry like a child...

A.S. Pushkin

“Like a steppe scorched by fires, Gregory’s life became black” (M. Sholokhov). The idea of ​​the blackness and gloom of the steppe evokes in the reader that melancholy and painful feeling that corresponds to Gregory’s state. There is a transfer of one of the meanings of the concept - “scorched steppe” to another - the internal state of the character. Sometimes, in order to compare some phenomena or concepts, the artist resorts to detailed comparisons:

The view of the steppe is sad, where there are no obstacles,
Disturbing only the silver feather grass,
The flying aquilon wanders
And he freely drives dust in front of him;
And where all around, no matter how vigilantly you look,
Meets the gaze of two or three birch trees,
Which are under the bluish haze
They turn black in the empty distance in the evening.
So life is boring when there is no struggle,
Penetrating into the past, discerning
There are few things we can do in it, in the prime of life
She will not amuse the soul.
I need to act, I do every day
I would like to make him immortal, like a shadow
Great hero, and understand
I can't, what does it mean to rest.

M. Lermontov

Here, with the help of the detailed S. Lermontov conveys a whole range of lyrical experiences and reflections.
Comparisons are usually connected by conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, etc. Non-union comparisons are also possible:
“Do I have fine curls - combed flax” N. Nekrasov. Here the conjunction is omitted. But sometimes it is not intended:
“The execution in the morning, the usual feast for the people” A. Pushkin.
Some forms of comparison are constructed descriptively and therefore are not connected by conjunctions:

And she appears
At the door or at the window
The early star is brighter,
Morning roses are fresh.

A. Pushkin

She's cute - I'll say between us -
Storm of the court knights,
And maybe with the southern stars
Compare, especially in poetry,
Her Circassian eyes.

A. Pushkin

A special type of comparison is the so-called negative:

The red sun does not shine in the sky,
The blue clouds do not admire him:
Then at mealtimes he sits in a golden crown
The formidable Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich is sitting.

M. Lermontov

In this parallel depiction of two phenomena, the form of negation is both a method of comparison and a method of transferring meanings.
A special case is represented by the instrumental case forms used in comparison:

It's time, beauty, wake up!
Open your closed eyes,
Towards northern Aurora
Be the star of the north.

A. Pushkin

I don't soar - I sit like an eagle.

A. Pushkin

Often there are comparisons in the form of the accusative case with the preposition “under”:
“Sergei Platonovich... sat with Atepin in the dining room, covered with expensive oak wallpaper...”

M. Sholokhov.

IMAGE - a generalized artistic reflection of reality, clothed in the form of a specific individual phenomenon. Poets think in images.

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Moroz - commander of the patrol

Walks around his possessions.

ON THE. Nekrasov

ALLEGORY (Greek allegoria - allegory) - a specific image of an object or phenomenon of reality, replacing an abstract concept or thought. A green branch in the hands of a person has long been an allegorical image of the world, a hammer has been an allegory of labor, etc.
The origin of many allegorical images should be sought in the cultural traditions of tribes, peoples, nations: they are found on banners, coats of arms, emblems and acquire a stable character.
Many allegorical images go back to Greek and Roman mythology. Thus, the image of a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands - the goddess Themis - is an allegory of justice, the image of a snake and a bowl is an allegory of medicine.
Allegory as a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness is widely used in fiction. It is based on the convergence of phenomena according to the correlation of their essential aspects, qualities or functions and belongs to the group of metaphorical tropes.

Unlike metaphor, in allegory the figurative meaning is expressed by a phrase, a whole thought, or even a small work (fable, parable).

GROTESQUE (French grotesque - whimsical, comical) - an image of people and phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form, based on sharp contrasts and exaggerations.

Enraged, I rush into the meeting like an avalanche,

Spewing wild curses on the way.

And I see: half the people are sitting.

Oh devilishness! Where is the other half?

V. Mayakovsky

IRONY (Greek eironeia - pretense) - expression of ridicule or deceit through allegory. A word or statement acquires a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it.

Servant of powerful masters,

With what noble courage

Thunder with your free speech

All those who have their mouths covered.

F.I. Tyutchev

SARCASM (Greek sarkazo, lit. - tearing meat) - contemptuous, caustic ridicule; the highest degree of irony.

ASSONANCE (French assonance - consonance or response) - repetition of homogeneous vowel sounds in a line, stanza or phrase.

Oh spring without end and without edge -

An endless and endless dream!

A. Blok

ALLITERATION (SOUNDS)(Latin ad - to, with and littera - letter) - repetition of homogeneous consonants, giving the verse a special intonational expressiveness.

Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind.

The majestic cry of the waves.

A storm is coming. It hits the shore

A black boat alien to enchantment...

K. Balmont

ALLUSION (from Latin allusio - joke, hint) - a stylistic figure, a hint through a similar-sounding word or mention of a well-known real fact, historical event, literary work (“the glory of Herostratus”).

ANAPHORA (Greek anaphora - carrying out) - repetition of the initial words, line, stanza or phrase.

You're miserable too

You are also abundant

You're downtrodden

You are omnipotent

Mother Rus'!…

ON THE. Nekrasov

ANTITHESIS (Greek antithesis - contradiction, opposition) - a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena.
You are rich, I am very poor;

You are a prose writer, I am a poet;

You are blushing like poppies,

I am like death, skinny and pale.

A.S. Pushkin

You're miserable too
You are also abundant
You are mighty
You are also powerless...

N. Nekrasov

So few roads have been traveled, so many mistakes have been made...

S. Yesenin.

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the thought expressed with its help. Sometimes the entire work is built on the principle of antithesis

APOCOPE (Greek apokope - cutting off) - artificially shortening a word without losing its meaning.

...When suddenly he came out of the forest

The bear opened its mouth at them...

A.N. Krylov

Barking, laughing, singing, whistling and clapping,

Human rumor and horse top!

A.S. Pushkin

ASYNDETON (asyndeton) - a sentence with the absence of conjunctions between homogeneous words or parts of a whole. A figure that gives speech dynamism and richness.

Night, street, lantern, pharmacy,

Pointless and dim light.

Live for at least another quarter of a century -

Everything will be like this. There is no outcome.

A. Blok

MULTI-UNION (polysyndeton ) - excessive repetition of conjunctions, creating additional intonation coloring. The opposite figure is asyndeton.

Slowing down speech with forced pauses, polyunion emphasizes individual words and enhances its expressiveness:

And the waves crowd and rush back,
And they come again and hit the shore...

M. Lermontov

And it’s boring and sad, and there’s no one to give a hand to...

M.Yu. Lermontov

GRADATION - from lat. gradatio - gradualism) is a stylistic figure in which definitions are grouped in a certain order - increasing or decreasing their emotional and semantic significance. Gradation enhances the emotional sound of the verse:

I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.

S. Yesenin

INVERSION (Latin inversio - rearrangement) - a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech; rearrangement of parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone.

Legends of deep antiquity

A.S. Pushkin

He passes the doorman with an arrow

Flew up the marble steps

A. Pushkin

OXYMORON (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid) - a combination of contrasting words with opposite meanings (living corpse, giant dwarf, heat of cold numbers).

PARALLELISM (from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) - identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, creating a single poetic image.

The waves splash in the blue sea.

The stars shine in the blue sky.

A. S. Pushkin

Your mind is as deep as the sea.

Your spirit is as high as the mountains.

V. Bryusov

Parallelism is especially characteristic of works of oral folk art (epics, songs, ditties, proverbs) and literary works close to them in their artistic features (“Song about the merchant Kalashnikov” by M. Yu. Lermontov, “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A Nekrasov, “Vasily Terkin” by A. T, Tvardovsky).

Parallelism can have a broader thematic nature in content, for example in the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov “Heavenly Clouds - Eternal Wanderers.”

Parallelism can be either verbal or figurative, or rhythmic or compositional.

PARCELLATION - an expressive syntactic technique of intonation division of a sentence into independent segments, graphically highlighted as independent sentences. (“And again. Gulliver. Standing. Slouching.” P. G. Antokolsky. “How courteous! Kind! Sweet! Simple!” Griboedov. “Mitrofanov grinned, stirred the coffee. He narrowed his eyes.”

N. Ilyina. “He soon quarreled with the girl. And that’s why.” G. Uspensky.)

TRANSFER (French enjambement - stepping over) - a discrepancy between the syntactic division of speech and the division into poetry. When transferring, the syntactic pause inside a verse or hemistich is stronger than at the end.

Peter comes out. His eyes

They shine. His face is terrible.

The movements are fast. He is beautiful,

He's like God's thunderstorm.

A. S. Pushkin

RHYME (Greek “rhythmos” - harmony, proportionality) - a variety epiphora ; the consonance of the ends of poetic lines, creating a feeling of their unity and kinship. Rhyme emphasizes the boundary between verses and links verses into stanzas.

ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - deletion, omission) - a figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning (most often the predicate). This achieves dynamism and conciseness of speech and conveys a tense change of action. Ellipsis is one of the types of default. In artistic speech, it conveys the speaker’s excitement or the tension of the action:

We sat down in ashes, cities in dust,
Swords include sickles and plows.

V. Zhuko

Day in the dark night in love,

Spring is in love with winter,

Life into death...

And you?... You're into me!

G. Heine

In the lyrics there are poems written in unspeakable constructions, that is, with extensive use of ellipsis, for example, A. Fet’s poem “Whisper, timid breathing...”

EPITHET (Greek epitheton - appendix) - a figurative definition that gives additional artistic characteristics to someone or something (“lonely sail”, “golden grove”),

a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities or characteristics.
The attribute expressed by the epithet seems to be attached to the object, enriching it semantically and emotionally. This property of the epithet is used when creating an artistic image:

But I love, golden spring,
Your continuous, wonderfully mixed noise;
You rejoice, without stopping for a moment,
Like a child without care or thoughts...

N. Nekrasov

The properties of an epithet appear in a word only when it is combined with another word denoting an object or phenomenon. So, in the example given, the words “golden” and “wonderfully mixed” acquire the properties of a synthetic in combination with the words “spring” and “noise”. Epithets are possible that not only define an object or emphasize certain aspects, but also transfer to it from another object or phenomenon (not directly expressed) a new, additional quality:

And we, poet, haven’t figured it out,
Didn't understand infantile sadness
In your seemingly forged poems.

V. Bryusov.

Such epithets are called metaphorical. An epithet emphasizes in an object not only its inherent, but also possible, conceivable, transferred features and characteristics. Various (meaningful) parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb) can be used as an epithet.
A special group of epithet includes constant epithets, which are used only in combination with one specific word: “living water” or “dead water”, “good fellow”, “greyhound horse”, etc. Constant epithets are characteristic of works of oral folk art .

EPIPHORA (Greek epiphora - repetition) - stylistic figure, opposite anaphora : Repeating the last words or phrases. Rhyme - type of epiphora (repetition of the last sounds).

The guests came ashore

Tsar Saltan invites them to visit...

A. S. Pushkin

A RHETORICAL QUESTION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, such a structure of speech, mainly poetic, in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not presuppose an answer; it only enhances the emotionality of the statement and its expressiveness.

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION(from the Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures, a structure of speech in which this or that concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation. The rhetorical exclamation sounds emotional, with poetic inspiration and elation:

Yes, to love as our blood loves
None of you have been in love for a long time!

A. Blok

RHETORICAL APPEAL(from Greek rhetor - speaker) - one of the stylistic figures. In form, being an appeal, a rhetorical appeal is conditional in nature. It imparts the necessary author’s intonation to poetic speech: solemnity, pathos, cordiality, irony, etc.:

And you, arrogant descendants
The famous meanness of the famous fathers...

M. Lermontov

DEFAULT - unspokenness, reticence. A deliberate break in a statement that conveys the emotion of the speech and assumes that the reader will guess what was said.

I do not love, O Rus', your timid
Thousands of years of slave poverty.
But this cross, but this ladle is white...
Humble, dear features!

Although he was afraid to say
It wouldn't be hard to guess
Whenever... but the heart, the younger,
The more fearful, the stricter...

Every house is foreign to me, every temple is empty to me,

And everything is equal, and everything is one.

But if on the road– bush

Stands up, especially - rowan…

M.I. Tsvetaeva

VERSE SIZES

JAMB - two-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable

HOREUS – disyllabic foot with stress on the first syllable

DACTYL – three-syllable foot with stress on the first syllable

AMPHIBRACHIUS – three-syllable foot with stress on the second syllable

ANAPAEST – three-syllable foot with stress on the third syllable

PYRRHIC – additional disyllabic foot, consisting of two unstressed syllables

SPONDEE – an additional foot consisting of two stressed syllables

RHYME

abab – cross, aabb - steam room, abba - ring (encircling), aabssb - mixed

MEN'S – stress falls on the last syllable of rhyming words

WOMEN'S – stress falls on the penultimate syllable of rhyming words

As you know, the word is the basic unit of any language, as well as the most important component of its artistic means. The correct use of vocabulary largely determines the expressiveness of speech.

In context, a word is a special world, a mirror of the author’s perception and attitude to reality. It has its own metaphorical precision, its own special truths, called artistic revelations; the functions of vocabulary depend on the context.

Individual perception of the world around us is reflected in such a text with the help of metaphorical statements. After all, art is, first of all, the self-expression of an individual. The literary fabric is woven from metaphors that create an exciting and emotionally affecting image of a particular work of art. Additional meanings appear in words, a special stylistic coloring, creating a unique world that we discover for ourselves while reading the text.

Not only in literary, but also in oral, we use, without thinking, various techniques of artistic expression to give it emotionality, persuasiveness, and imagery. Let's figure out what artistic techniques there are in the Russian language.

The use of metaphors especially contributes to the creation of expressiveness, so let's start with them.

Metaphor

It is impossible to imagine artistic techniques in literature without mentioning the most important of them - the way of creating a linguistic picture of the world based on meanings already existing in the language itself.

The types of metaphors can be distinguished as follows:

1. Fossilized, worn out, dry or historical (bow of a boat, eye of a needle).
2. Phraseologisms are stable figurative combinations of words that are emotional, metaphorical, reproducible in the memory of many native speakers, expressive (death grip, vicious circle, etc.).
3. Single metaphor (eg homeless heart).
4. Unfolded (heart - “porcelain bell in yellow China” - Nikolay Gumilyov).
5. Traditionally poetic (morning of life, fire of love).
6. Individually-authored (sidewalk hump).

In addition, a metaphor can simultaneously be an allegory, personification, hyperbole, periphrasis, meiosis, litotes and other tropes.

The word “metaphor” itself means “transfer” in translation from Greek. In this case, we are dealing with the transfer of a name from one item to another. For it to become possible, they must certainly have some similarity, they must be adjacent in some way. A metaphor is a word or expression used in a figurative meaning due to the similarity of two phenomena or objects in some way.

As a result of this transfer, an image is created. Therefore, metaphor is one of the most striking means of expressiveness of artistic, poetic speech. However, the absence of this trope does not mean the lack of expressiveness of the work.

A metaphor can be either simple or extensive. In the twentieth century, the use of expanded ones in poetry is revived, and the nature of simple ones changes significantly.

Metonymy

Metonymy is a type of metaphor. Translated from Greek, this word means “renaming,” that is, it is the transfer of the name of one object to another. Metonymy is the replacement of a certain word with another based on the existing contiguity of two concepts, objects, etc. This is the imposition of a figurative word on the direct meaning. For example: “I ate two plates.” Mixing of meanings and their transfer are possible because objects are adjacent, and the contiguity can be in time, space, etc.

Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. Translated from Greek, this word means “correlation.” This transfer of meaning occurs when the smaller is called instead of the larger, or vice versa; instead of a part - a whole, and vice versa. For example: “According to Moscow reports.”

Epithet

It is impossible to imagine the artistic techniques in literature, the list of which we are now compiling, without an epithet. This is a figure, trope, figurative definition, phrase or word denoting a person, phenomenon, object or action with a subjective

Translated from Greek, this term means “attached, application,” that is, in our case, one word is attached to some other.

The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness.

Constant epithets are used in folklore as a means of typification, and also as one of the most important means of artistic expression. In the strict sense of the term, only those whose function is words in a figurative meaning, in contrast to the so-called exact epithets, which are expressed in words in a literal meaning (red berries, beautiful flowers), belong to tropes. Figurative ones are created when words are used in a figurative sense. Such epithets are usually called metaphorical. Metonymic transfer of name may also underlie this trope.

An oxymoron is a type of epithet, the so-called contrasting epithets, forming combinations with defined nouns of words that are opposite in meaning (hateful love, joyful sadness).

Comparison

Simile is a trope in which one object is characterized through comparison with another. That is, this is a comparison of different objects by similarity, which can be both obvious and unexpected, distant. It is usually expressed using certain words: “exactly”, “as if”, “similar”, “as if”. Comparisons can also take the form of the instrumental case.

Personification

When describing artistic techniques in literature, it is necessary to mention personification. This is a type of metaphor that represents the assignment of properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. It is often created by referring to such natural phenomena as conscious living beings. Personification is also the transference of human properties to animals.

Hyperbole and litotes

Let us note such techniques of artistic expression in literature as hyperbole and litotes.

Hyperbole (translated as “exaggeration”) is one of the expressive means of speech, which is a figure with the meaning of exaggerating what is being discussed.

Litota (translated as “simplicity”) is the opposite of hyperbole - an excessive understatement of what is being discussed (a boy the size of a finger, a man the size of a fingernail).

Sarcasm, irony and humor

We continue to describe artistic techniques in literature. Our list will be complemented by sarcasm, irony and humor.

• Sarcasm means "tearing meat" in Greek. This is evil irony, caustic mockery, caustic remark. When using sarcasm, a comic effect is created, but at the same time there is a clear ideological and emotional assessment.
• Irony in translation means “pretense”, “mockery”. It occurs when one thing is said in words, but something completely different, the opposite, is meant.
• Humor is one of the lexical means of expressiveness, translated meaning “mood”, “disposition”. Sometimes entire works can be written in a comic, allegorical vein, in which one can sense a mocking, good-natured attitude towards something. For example, the story “Chameleon” by A.P. Chekhov, as well as many fables by I.A. Krylov.

The types of artistic techniques in literature do not end there. We present to your attention the following.

Grotesque

The most important artistic techniques in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "bizarre". This artistic technique represents a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the works of, for example, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The Golovlevs,” “The History of a City,” fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of a hyperbole.

Sarcasm, irony, humor and grotesque are popular artistic techniques in literature. Examples of the first three are the stories of A.P. Chekhov and N.N. Gogol. The work of J. Swift is grotesque (for example, Gulliver's Travels).

What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel “Lord Golovlevs”? Of course it's grotesque. Irony and sarcasm are present in the poems of V. Mayakovsky. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, and Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic techniques in literature, examples of which we have just given, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.

Pun

A pun is a figure of speech that represents an involuntary or deliberate ambiguity that arises when used in the context of two or more meanings of a word or when their sound is similar. Its varieties are paronomasia, false etymologization, zeugma and concretization.

In puns, the play on words is based on the jokes that arise from them. These artistic techniques in literature can be found in the works of V. Mayakovsky, Omar Khayyam, Kozma Prutkov, A.P. Chekhov.

Figure of speech - what is it?

The word “figure” itself is translated from Latin as “appearance, outline, image.” This word has many meanings. What does this term mean in relation to artistic speech? related to figures: questions, appeals.

What is a "trope"?

“What is the name of an artistic technique that uses a word in a figurative sense?” - you ask. The term “trope” combines various techniques: epithet, metaphor, metonymy, comparison, synecdoche, litotes, hyperbole, personification and others. Translated, the word "trope" means "turnover". Literary speech differs from ordinary speech in that it uses special turns of phrase that embellish the speech and make it more expressive. Different styles use different means of expression. The most important thing in the concept of “expressiveness” for artistic speech is the ability of a text or a work of art to have an aesthetic, emotional impact on the reader, to create poetic pictures and vivid images.

We all live in a world of sounds. Some of them evoke positive emotions in us, others, on the contrary, excite, alarm, cause anxiety, calm or induce sleep. Different sounds evoke different images. Using their combination, you can emotionally influence a person. Reading works of literature and Russian folk art, we perceive their sound especially keenly.

Basic techniques for creating sound expressiveness

• Alliteration is the repetition of similar or identical consonants.
• Assonance is the deliberate harmonious repetition of vowels.

Alliteration and assonance are often used simultaneously in works. These techniques are aimed at evoking various associations in the reader.

Technique of sound recording in fiction

Sound painting is an artistic technique that is the use of certain sounds in a specific order to create a certain image, that is, a selection of words that imitate the sounds of the real world. This technique in fiction is used both in poetry and prose.

Types of sound recording:

1. Assonance means “consonance” in French. Assonance is the repetition of the same or similar vowel sounds in a text to create a specific sound image. It promotes the expressiveness of speech, it is used by poets in the rhythm and rhyme of poems.
2. Alliteration - from This technique is the repetition of consonants in a literary text to create some sound image, in order to make poetic speech more expressive.
3. Onomatopoeia is the transmission of auditory impressions in special words reminiscent of the sounds of phenomena in the surrounding world.

These artistic techniques in poetry are very common; without them, poetic speech would not be so melodic.

You've probably heard more than once that Russian is one of the most difficult languages. Why? It's all about the design of the speech. Means of expression make our words richer, poems more expressive, prose more interesting. It is impossible to clearly convey thoughts without using special lexical figures, because the speech will sound poor and ugly.

Let's figure out what types of expressive means the Russian language is and where to find them.

Perhaps at school you wrote essays poorly: the text “didn’t flow”, the words were chosen with difficulty, and it was generally unrealistic to finish the presentation with a clear thought. The fact is that the necessary syntactic means are put into the head by reading books. However, they alone are not enough to write interestingly, colorfully and easily. You need to develop your skill through practice.

Just compare the next two columns. On the left is text without means of expression or with a minimal amount of them. On the right is text rich in expressiveness. These are often found in the literature.

It would seem like three banal sentences, but how interesting they can be described! Expressive language helps the viewer see the picture you are trying to describe. There is an art to using them, but it is not difficult to master. It is enough to read a lot and pay attention to the interesting techniques used by the author.

For example, in the paragraph of text on the right, epithets are used, thanks to which the subject is instantly presented as bright and unusual. What will the reader remember better - an ordinary cat or a fat commander cat? Rest assured that the second option will probably be more to your liking. And there won’t be such embarrassment that in the middle of the text the cat will suddenly be white, but the reader has long imagined it as gray!

So, syntactic means are special techniques of artistic expression that prove, justify, depict information and engage the imagination of the reader or listener. This is extremely important not only for written, but also for oral speech. Especially if the speech or text is written in . However, in both cases, the means of expression in the Russian language should be in moderation. Do not oversaturate the reader or listener with them, otherwise he will quickly get tired of making his way through such a “jungle”.

Existing means of expression

There are a lot of such special techniques, and it is unlikely that you know everything about them. Let's start with the fact that you don't need to use all means of expressiveness at once - this makes speech difficult. You need to use them in moderation, but not skimp. Then you will achieve the desired effect.

Traditionally they are divided into several groups:

• phonetic - most often found in poems;
• lexical (tropes);
• stylistic figures.

Let's try to deal with them in order. And to make it more convenient for you, after the explanation, all the expressive means of the language are presented in convenient tablets - you can print them out and hang them on the wall so that you can re-read them from time to time. This way you can learn them unobtrusively.

Phonetic techniques

Among phonetic techniques, the two most common are alliteration and assonance. They differ only in that in the first case the consonants are repeated, in the second - the vowels.

This technique is very convenient to use in poems when there are few words, but you need to convey the atmosphere. Yes, and poetry is most often read aloud, and assonance or alliteration helps to “see” the picture.

Suppose we need to describe a swamp. In the swamp there are reeds that rustle. The beginning of the line is ready - the reeds rustle. We can already hear this sound, but this is not enough to complete the picture.

Do you hear the reeds seem to rustle and hiss silently? Now we can feel this atmosphere. This technique is called alliteration - consonant letters are repeated.

Likewise with assonance, repetition of vowels. This one is a little easier. For example: I hear a spring thunderstorm, then I fall silent, then I sing. With this, the author conveys a lyrical mood and spring sadness. The effect is achieved through the skillful use of vowels. A table will help explain what assonance is.

Lexical devices (tropes)

Lexical devices are used much more often than other means of expression. The fact is that people often use them unconsciously. For example, we can say that our heart is lonely. But the heart cannot actually be lonely, it is just an epithet, a means of expression. However, such expressions help emphasize the deeper meaning of what is being said.

The main lexical devices include the following tropes:

• epithet;
• comparison as a means of expressive speech;
• metaphor;
• metonymy;
• irony;
• hyperbole and litotes.

Sometimes we use these lexical units unconsciously. For example, comparison pops up in everyone’s speech - this means of expressiveness has become firmly established in everyday life, so it must be used wisely.

Metaphor is a more interesting form of comparison because we are not comparing slow death to cigarettes by using the word “as if.” We already understand that slow death is a cigarette. Or, for example, the expression “dry clouds”. Most likely, this means that it has not rained for a long time. Epithet and metaphor often overlap, so when analyzing the text it is important not to confuse them.

Hyperbole and litotes are exaggeration and understatement, respectively. For example, the expression “the sun has absorbed the power of a hundred fires” is a clear hyperbole. And “quietly, quieter than a stream” is litotes. These phenomena have also become firmly established in everyday life.

Metonymy and periphrasis are interesting phenomena. Metonymy is a shortening of what is said. For example, there is no need to talk about Chekhov's books as “books that Chekhov wrote.” You can use the expression “Chekhov’s books”, and this will be a metonymy.

And periphrasis is the deliberate replacement of concepts with synonymous ones in order to avoid tautology in the text.

Although, with the right skill, tautology can also be a means of expression!

Lexical means of expressiveness in speech also include:

• archaisms (outdated vocabulary);
• historicisms (vocabulary related to a specific historical period);
• neologisms (new vocabulary);
• phraseological units;
• dialectisms, jargon, aphorisms.

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures often contain special grammatical structures. The most commonly used include:

• anaphora and epiphora;
• compositional joint;
• antithesis;
• oxymoron or paradox;
• inversion;
• parcellation;
• ellipsis;
• rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals;
• asyndeton.

Anaphora and epiphora are often classified as phonetic devices, but this is an erroneous judgment. Such techniques of artistic expression are pure stylistics. Anaphora is the same beginning of several lines, epiphora is the same ending. Most often they are used in poetry, sometimes in prose, to emphasize drama and growing anxiety, or to enhance the poetry of the moment.

A compositional junction is a deliberate “escalation” of a conflict. The word is used at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next. It gave me everything, the word. The Word helped me become who I am. This technique is called a compositional junction.

Antithesis is the opposition of two antipodal concepts: yesterday and today, night and day, death and life. Interesting techniques include parcellation, which is used to increase conflict and change the pace of the narrative, as well as ellipsis - the omission of a sentence member. Often used in exclamations and calls.

Features of the use of means of expression

We should not forget that gestures are also used in spoken Russian speech. Sometimes they are more eloquent than ordinary means of expression, but in the skillful combination of these figures. Then the role will turn out to be lively, rich and bright.

Do not try to insert as many stylistic or lexical figures into your speech as possible. This will not make the word richer, but it will give you the feeling that you have “put on” too many decorations on yourself, which is why you have become uninteresting. Means of expression are like a skillfully selected accessory. Sometimes you don’t even notice it right away, it is so harmoniously intertwined in a sentence with other words.

Fine-expressive language means of fiction include:

Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition of an object or phenomenon.

Example: sadness - "inexpressible" eyes - "huge" May - "solar", fingers - "the finest"(O. Mandel-shtam “Inexpressible sadness...")

Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.

Example: The earth was shaking— like our breasts; Horses, people, and volleys mixed in a heap thousands of guns Merged into a long howl... (M.Yu. Lermontov “Borodino”)

Litotes- artistic understatement (“reverse hyperbole”).

Example: “The youngest son was as tall as a finger..."(A.A. Akh-matova. “Lullaby”).

Trails- words or phrases used not in a literal, but in a figurative meaning. The trails include allegory, allusion, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrase, symbol, symphora, synecdoche, comparison, euphemism.

Allegory- allegory, depiction of an abstract idea through a concrete, clearly represented image. The allegory is unambiguous and directly points to a strictly defined concept.

Example: fox- cunning wolf- cruelty, donkey - stupidity (in fables); gloomy Albion- England (A.S. Pushkin “When you squeeze your hand again...”).

Allusion- one of the tropes that consists in using a transparent hint of some well-known everyday, literary or historical fact instead of mentioning this fact itself.

Example: A. S. Pushkin’s mention of the Patriotic War of 1812:

Why? be responsible: for whether,

What's on the ruins of burning Moscow

We did not recognize the arrogant will

The one under whom you trembled?

(“To the slanderers of Russia”)

Metaphor- this is a hidden comparison based on some characteristics common to the compared objects or phenomena.

Example: The east is burning with a new dawn(A.S. Pushkin “Poltava”).

Personification- endowing objects and phenomena of non-living nature with the features of a living being (most often a person).

Example: “The night thickened, flew nearby, grabbed those jumping by the cloaks and, tearing them off their shoulders, exposed the deceptions(M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”).

Metonymy- a poetic trope consisting of replacing one word or concept with another that has a causal connection with the first.

Example: There is a Museum of Ethnography in this city

Over the Neva, wide as the Nile,

(N. S. Gumilyov “Abyssinia”)

Synecdoche- one of the tropes that is built on the relationship of quantity; more instead of less or vice versa.

Example: Say: how soon will we Warsaw Will the proud man prescribe his own law? (A. S. Pushkin “Borodin Anniversary”)

Periphrase- a trope that is built on the principle of expanded metonymy and consists of replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive figure of speech, which indicates the characteristics of an object not directly named.

Example: in the poem by A. A. Akhmatova “The dark-skinned youth wandered through the alleys...” using periphrasis, A. S. Pushkin himself is depicted:

Here lay his cocked hat and the disheveled volume of Guys.

Euphemism- replacement of a rude, indecent or intimate word or statement with others that transparently hint at the true meaning (close to periphrasis in stylistic organization).

Example: woman in an interesting position instead of pregnant, recovered instead of getting fat, borrowed instead he stole it, etc.

Symbol- hidden comparison, in which the object being compared is not named, but is implied to a certain extent

variability (multiple meanings). A symbol only points to some reality, but is not compared with it unambiguously and directly; this contains the fundamental difference between a symbol and a metaphor, with which it is often confused.

Example: I'm just a cloud full of fire(K.D. Balmont “I do not know wisdom”). The only point of contact between the poet and the cloud is “fleetingness.”

Anaphora (unity of principle)- this is the repetition of similar sounds, words, syntactic and rhythmic repetitions at the beginning of adjacent verses, stanzas (in poetic works) or closely spaced phrases in a paragraph or at the beginning of adjacent paragraphs (in prose).

Example: Kohl love so crazy Kohl threaten, so seriously, Kohl scold, so rashly, Kohl chop, just like that! (A.K. Tolstoy “If you love, you go crazy...”)

Multi-Union- such a construction of a stanza, episode, verse, paragraph, when all the main logically significant phrases (segments) included in it are connected by the same conjunction:

Example: And the wind, and the rain, and the darkness

Above the cold desert of water. (I. A. Bunin “Loneliness”)

Gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression.

Example: No one will give us deliverance, Neither God, nor king, nor hero...

(E. Pothier “Internationale”)

Oxymoron (or oxymoron)- a contrasting combination of words with opposite meanings in order to create an ethical effect.

Example: “I love lush nature fading..."(A.S. Pushkin “Autumn”).

Alliteration- a technique of sound writing that gives lines of verse or parts of prose a special sound through the repetition of certain consonant sounds.

Example: “Katya, Katya,” they are cutting out the horseshoes for my race...” In I. Selvinsky’s poem “The Black-Eyed Cossack Woman,” the repetition of the sound “k” imitates the clatter of hooves.

Antiphrasis- the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to its semantics, most often ironic.

Example: ...He sang faded color of life"Almost at eighteen years old. (A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”)

Stylization- this is a technique that consists in the fact that the author deliberately imitates the style, manner, poetics of some other famous work or group of works.

Example: in the poem “Tsarskoye Selo Statue” A. S. Pushkin resorts to stylization of ancient poetry:

Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on a cliff. The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard. Miracle! The water does not dry up, pouring out from the broken urn, the Virgin sits eternally sad over the eternal stream.

Anthology- the use of words and expressions in the work in their direct, immediate, everyday meaning. This is neutral, “prosaic” speech.

Example: Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet a Servant bringing me a cup of tea in the morning with questions: is it warm? Has the snowstorm subsided? (A.S. Pushkin “Winter. What should we do in the village?..”)

Antithesis- artistic contrast of images, concepts, positions, situations, etc.

Example: here is a fragment of the historical song “Choice of Er-mak as Ataman”:

Unclear falcons flew together - They gathered and gathered Good fellows...

Russian language is one of the richest, most beautiful and complex. Not least of all, what makes it so is the presence of a large number of means of verbal expression.

In this article we will look at what a linguistic device is and what types it comes in. Let's look at examples of use from fiction and everyday speech.

Linguistic means in the Russian language - what is it?

The description of the most ordinary object can be made beautiful and unusual by using linguistic

Words and expressions that give expressiveness to the text are conventionally divided into three groups: phonetic, lexical (aka tropes) and stylistic figures.

To answer the question of what a linguistic device is, let’s take a closer look at them.

Lexical means of expression

Tropes are linguistic means in the Russian language that are used by the author in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Widely used in works of art.

Paths serve to create visual, auditory, and olfactory images. They help create a certain atmosphere and produce the desired effect on the reader.

The basis of lexical means of expressiveness is hidden or explicit comparison. It may be based on external similarity, personal associations of the author, or the desire to describe the object in a certain way.

Basic language means: tropes

We have been exposed to trails since we were in school. Let's remember the most common of them:

1. The epithet is the most famous and common trope. Often found in poetic works. An epithet is a colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison. Emphasizes the features of the described object, its most expressive features. Examples: “ruddy dawn”, “easy character”, “golden hands”, “silver voice”.
2. Simile is a word or expression based on the comparison of one object with another. Most often it is formalized in the form of a comparative turnover. You can recognize it by the use of conjunctions characteristic of this technique: as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, that. Let's look at examples: “transparent like dew,” “white like snow,” “straight like a reed.”
3. Metaphor is a means of expression based on hidden comparison. But, unlike it, it is not formalized by unions. A metaphor is built by relying on the similarity of two objects of speech. For example: “church onions”, “whisper of grass”, “tears of heaven”.
4. Synonyms are words that are similar in meaning, but differ in spelling. In addition to classical synonyms, there are contextual ones. They take on a specific meaning within a particular text. Let's get acquainted with the examples: “jump - jump”, “look - see”.
5. Antonyms are words that have directly opposite meanings to each other. Like synonyms, they can be contextual. Example: “white - black”, “shout - whisper”, “calm - excitement”.
6. Personification is the transfer of signs and characteristic features of an animate object to an inanimate object. For example: “the willow shook its branches,” “the sun smiled brightly,” “the rain was knocking on the roofs,” “the radio was chirping in the kitchen.”

Are there other paths?

There are a lot of means of lexical expressiveness in the Russian language. In addition to the group that everyone is familiar with, there are also those that are unknown to many, but are also widely used:

1. Metonymy is the replacement of one word with another that has a similar or the same meaning. Let's look at the examples: “hey, blue jacket (addressing a person in a blue jacket)”, “the whole class opposed (meaning all the students in the class).”
2. Synecdoche is a transfer of comparison from a part to a whole, and vice versa. Example: “one could hear the Frenchman rejoicing (the author is talking about the French army)”, “an insect flew in”, “there were a hundred heads in the herd.”
3. Allegory is an expressive comparison of ideas or concepts using an artistic image. Most often found in fairy tales, fables and parables. For example, a fox symbolizes cunning, a hare - cowardice, and a wolf - anger.
4. Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. Serves to make the text more expressive. Places emphasis on a certain quality of an object, person or phenomenon. Let's look at the examples: “words destroy hope,” “his act is the highest evil,” “he has become forty times more beautiful.”
5. Litota is a special understatement of real facts. For example: “he was thinner than a reed,” “he was no taller than a thimble.”
6. Periphrasis is the replacement of a word or expression with a synonymous combination. Used to avoid lexical repetitions in one or adjacent sentences. Example: “the fox is a cunning cheat”, “the text is the brainchild of the author.”

Stylistic figures

Stylistic figures are linguistic means in the Russian language that give speech a certain imagery and expressiveness. They change the emotional coloring of its meanings.

Widely used in poetry and prose since the times of ancient poets. However, modern and older interpretations of the term differ.

In ancient Greece, it was believed that stylistic figures are linguistic means of language, which in their form differ significantly from everyday speech. Now it is believed that figures of speech are an integral part of spoken language.

What are the stylistic figures?

Stylistics offers a lot of its own resources:

1. Lexical repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, compositional junction) are expressive linguistic means that include repetition of any part of a sentence at the beginning, end, or at the junction with the next one. For example: “It was a beautiful sound. It was the best voice I've heard in years."
2. Antithesis - one or more sentences built on the basis of opposition. For example, consider the phrase: “I drag myself in the dust and soar in the skies.”
3. Gradation is the use in a sentence of synonyms arranged according to the degree of increase or decrease of a characteristic. Example: “The sparkles on the New Year’s tree shone, burned, shone.”
4. An oxymoron is the inclusion in a phrase of words that contradict each other in meaning and cannot be used in the same composition. The most striking and famous example of this stylistic figure is “Dead Souls”.
5. Inversion is a change in the classical order of words in a sentence. For example, not “he ran,” but “he ran.”
6. Parcellation is the division of a sentence with a single meaning into several parts. For example: “Opposite Nikolai. He looks without blinking."
7. Polyconjunction is the use of conjunctions to connect homogeneous members of a sentence. Used for greater speech expressiveness. Example: “It was a strange and wonderful and wonderful and mysterious day.”
8. Non-union - connections of homogeneous members in a sentence are carried out without unions. For example: “He was thrashing about, screaming, crying, moaning.”

Phonetic means of expression

Phonetic means of expression are the smallest group. They involve repeating certain sounds to create picturesque artistic images.

This technique is most often used in poetry. Authors use repetition of sounds when they want to convey the sound of thunder, rustling leaves or other natural phenomena.

Phonetics also help to give poetry a certain character. By using certain combinations of sounds, the text can be made harder, or vice versa, softer.

What phonetic means exist?

1. Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants in the text, creating the image necessary for the author. For example: “With my dreams I caught the passing shadows, the passing shadows of the faded day.”
2. Assonance is the repetition of certain vowel sounds in order to create a vivid artistic image. For example: “Do I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple.”
3. Onomatopoeia is the use of phonetic combinations that convey a certain clatter of hooves, the sound of waves, or the rustling of leaves.

Use of verbal means of expressiveness

Linguistic means in the Russian language have been widely used and continue to be used in literary works, be it prose or poetry.

Writers of the Golden Age demonstrate excellent mastery of stylistic figures. Due to the masterful use of expressive means, their works are colorful, imaginative, and pleasing to the ear. It’s not for nothing that they are considered a national treasure of Russia.

We encounter linguistic means not only in fiction, but also in everyday life. Almost every person uses comparisons, metaphors, and epithets in his speech. Without realizing it, we make our language beautiful and rich.