Facts about the Russian-Turkish war 1877 1878. Russian-Turkish wars - briefly

Lesson summary on Russian history in 8th grade

The date of the: 04/21/2016

Lesson topic: "Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878."

Lesson type: learning new material.

Lesson objectives:

1. Identify the causes and prerequisites of the war; assess the strength of the Russian army on the eve of the war; characterize and describe the course of hostilities; consider the main battles of the war; analyze and compare the Treaty of San Stefano and the Treaty of Berlin; name the reasons for the victory of the Russian army in the war;

2. To develop students’ ability to work with the text of the textbook, with a historical map and media files; analyze historical documents;

3. Foster a sense of pride for your country, instill a love for the glorious victories of Russian weapons.

Expected results: During the lesson, students will be able to:

Name the causes and prerequisites of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

Describe the course of the fighting.

Name the dates of the main battles between the Russian and Turkish armies.

Show on the historical map: a) places of battles; b) directions of movement of troops; c) the place where the Treaty of San Stefano was concluded; d) states such as: Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania.

Conduct an independent search for information, working with the text of the textbook and documents in accordance with the assignments.

Analyze the Treaty of San Stefano and the Berlin Agreement.

Name the reasons for the victory of the Russian army and tell the results of the war.

Equipment: Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G. Russian history. EndXVI – XVIIIcentury 8th grade: textbook. for educational institutions. – M.: Education, 2009; map "Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878".

Lesson Plan

1. Causes and prerequisites for the outbreak of war, the Balkan crisis.

2. Progress of hostilities.

3. Conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Congress.

4. The final results of the war and the reasons for the victory of the Russian Empire.

During the classes

What was your homework assignment?

Name the tasks of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII .

Name the main directions of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII .

What are the results of Russian foreign policy in all directions?

What is the main result of Russian foreign policy during the reign of AlexanderII ?

Introductory word: Today in class we will talk about the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

Foreign policy of Alexander II, §27.

Restoration of international prestige and the abolition of the terms of the Paris Peace.

European, Caucasian, Central Asian, Far Eastern, Alaska.

In the European direction: searching for an ally, establishing friendly relations with Prussia;

In the Caucasian direction: the end of the Caucasian War, the annexation of occupied territories, the suppression of the actions of local tribes and military leaders;

In Central Asian:

Annexation of the Bukhara and Khiva khanates, formation of the Turkestan region as part of the Russian Empire;

In the Far Eastern direction:

The conclusion of the Aigun and Beijing treaties with China, the establishment of a clear border between Russia and China; establishing the border between Russia and Japan;

Selling Alaska to the USA.

Russia was able to regain international prestige and authority and restore its status as a great power.

2. Studying new material.

1) Causes and prerequisites of the war, the Balkan crisis.

2) The course of hostilities.

3) Conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty and the Berlin Congress.

4) The final results of the war. Reasons for Russia's victory.

What role did Russia play in relation to the Christian peoples of the Balkan Peninsula?

What was Turkey's policy in this region?

So, in the mid-70s of the 19th century, on the basis of religious and ethnic oppression, an uprising broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was supported by the Serbs and Bulgarians, who also rebelled.

Do you think the rebel peoples could have resisted for a long time? Give reasons for your answer.

Russia comes out in support of the rebel peoples and convenes a number of international conferences on this issue. Russia, Germany and Austria openly call on Turkey to respect the rights of Christians, to which Turkey refuses. Russia presented Turkey with an ultimatum, which the Turkish side ignored.

Do you think it was fair for Russia to start a war in this situation?

The government assessed the forces of the parties in favor of Russia, which made it possible to start a war. Based on the text of the textbook on pages 198-199, second paragraph of the paragraph “Beginning of hostilities,” answer the following questions:

Was the Russian army ready for war? What were her main problems?

So, in June 1877, the Russian army crossed the Danube. At first, the campaign was successful: no serious resistance was encountered, and the ancient Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo was liberated. The Bulgarians actively began to join the ranks of the militia. Our troops occupied the strategically important Shipka Pass and Nikopol. So, take a look at the map: after the Shipka Pass, a direct road to Istanbul opens.

I bring to your attention a video fragment that will convey to us the atmosphere of military battles on Shipka. Answer the question:

While our troops were fiercely repelling enemy attacks on Shipka, a serious threat arose in the rear of our troops: the Turks occupied Plevna, which our command considered an unimportant object. Look at the map and answer the question:

What position did Plevna occupy in relation to the Russian troops?

Russian troops besieged Plevna, made 3 unsuccessful assault attempts, lost a large number of soldiers and moved on to a “proper” siege. The Turks surrendered only when they ran out of supplies.

The forces liberated from Plevna in November 1877 were sent to help our troops on Shipka.

What was unusual about this move by the Russian command?

Reinforcements arrived in time and pushed the Turkish forces back from Shipka and immediately launched an attack on Istanbul. From that moment on, the outcome of the war was completely clear. Within a few months, Russian troops reached the suburb of Istanbul, Andrianapol. The Turks requested a truce. Not far from Istanbul, in the town of San Stefano, a peace treaty was concluded. Open textbook page 201, find the item “Treaty of San Stefano. Berlin Congress" and read the first 2 paragraphs.

So, what were the terms of this peace treaty?

However, Western countries did not like these conditions, and they insisted on convening the Berlin Congress, in which Russia was forced to take part. Read the next two paragraphs and write down the terms of the Berlin Agreement.

As you can see, European countries, fearing the strengthening of Russia, tried to crush it at the diplomatic level.

Based on what you learned in today's lesson, tell me: why did Russia win the war?

Russia acted as their protector and patroness.

Turkey's policy was aimed at oppressing local Christian peoples on religious and ethnic grounds.

The rebel peoples were not able to resist for long, since they did not have strong, combat-ready armies.

Russia rightly started the war, because... Türkiye did not comply with the demands of the international community and continued its active actions in the Balkans.

The Russian army was ready for war, military reform began to produce positive results: the army was rearmed, retrained, and recruited according to new principles. The main problem of the army was the command staff, which represented the old school of officers and outdated views on warfare.

Write down the main information in notebooks following the teacher.

They find the Shipka Pass and analyze the nature of the area.

They are watching a video clip from the film “Heroes of Shipka”.

Heroic, brave, courageous.

Plevna was located in the rear of the Russian troops, creating a serious threat.

The troops were not withdrawn to winter quarters and continued fighting in the winter, which was not typical for that time.

Read the text of the textbook.

Southern Bessarabia is returned to Russia;

The Transcaucasian fortresses of Batum, Kars, and Ardagan joined;

Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence;

Bulgaria received autonomy;

Read the text of the textbook

Partition of Bulgaria;

The territories of Serbia and Montenegro have been reduced;

Russia's acquisitions in Transcaucasia have been reduced.

Military reform began to produce positive results; a balance of forces favorable for Russia; the courage and heroism of soldiers; high level of patriotism throughout society; support of the local population.

3. Consolidation.

What is the significance of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 for Russia?

They analyze the information received during the lesson and determine the significance of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 for Russia.

Analyze their work in class using tables and give themselves a grade.

2 – unsatisfactory;

3 – satisfactory;

4 – good;

5 – excellent.

5. Assessing results and recording homework.

Setting and commenting marks. Verbal assessment of the activity of the class as a whole.

Instructions for completing homework.

Recording homework: comparative analysis of the Treaty of San Stefano and the Berlin Agreement in writing.

The main causes of the war of 1877-1878

1) The aggravation of the eastern question and Russia’s desire to play an active role in international politics;

2) Russian support for the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples against the Ottoman Empire

3) Turkey’s refusal to satisfy Russia’s ultimatum to stop hostilities in Serbia

The aggravation of the Eastern Question and the beginning of the war.

Progress of hostilities

Results of the Russian-Turkish war:

None of the people knows anything in advance. And the greatest misfortune can befall a person in the best place, and the greatest happiness can find him - in the worst place...

Alexander Solzhenitsyn

In the foreign policy of the Russian Empire in the 19th century, there were four wars with the Ottoman Empire. Russia won three of them and lost one. The last war in the 19th century between the two countries was the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, in which Russia won. The victory was one of the results of the military reform of Alexander 2. As a result of the war, the Russian Empire regained a number of territories, and also helped to gain the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. In addition, for non-intervention in the war, Austria-Hungary received Bosnia, and England received Cyprus. The article is devoted to a description of the causes of the war between Russia and Turkey, its stages and main battles, the results and historical consequences of the war, as well as an analysis of the reaction of Western European countries to the increasing influence of Russia in the Balkans.

What were the causes of the Russo-Turkish War?

Historians identify the following reasons for the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878:

1. Exacerbation of the “Balkan” issue.
2. Russia's desire to regain its status as an influential player in the foreign arena.
3. Russian support for the national movement of Slavic peoples in the Balkans, seeking to expand its influence in this region. This caused intense resistance from European countries and the Ottoman Empire.
4. The conflict between Russia and Turkey over the status of the straits, as well as the desire for revenge for the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
5. Turkey's unwillingness to compromise, ignoring not only the demands of Russia, but also the European community.

Now let's look at the reasons for the war between Russia and Turkey in more detail, since it is important to know them and interpret them correctly. Despite the lost Crimean War, Russia, thanks to some reforms (primarily military) of Alexander 2, again became an influential and strong state in Europe. This forced many politicians in Russia to think about revenge for the lost war. But this was not even the most important thing - much more important was the desire to regain the right to have the Black Sea Fleet. In many ways, it was to achieve this goal that the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was unleashed, which we will talk briefly about later.

In 1875, an uprising against Turkish rule began in Bosnia. The army of the Ottoman Empire brutally suppressed it, but already in April 1876 an uprising began in Bulgaria. Türkiye also cracked down on this national movement. As a sign of protest against the policy towards the southern Slavs, and also wanting to realize its territorial goals, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in June 1876. The Serbian army was much weaker than the Turkish one. Since the beginning of the 19th century, Russia has positioned itself as the protector of the Slavic peoples in the Balkans, so Chernyaev, as well as several thousand Russian volunteers, went to Serbia.

After the defeat of the Serbian army in October 1876 near Dyuniš, Russia called on Turkey to stop hostilities and guarantee cultural rights to the Slavic people. The Ottomans, feeling the support of Britain, ignored the ideas of Russia. Despite the obviousness of the conflict, the Russian Empire tried to resolve the issue peacefully. Proof of this are several conferences convened by Alexander 2, in particular in January 1877 in Istanbul. Ambassadors and representatives of key European countries gathered there, but did not come to a common decision.

In March, an agreement was signed in London, which obligated Turkey to carry out reforms, but the latter completely ignored it. Thus, Russia has only one option left for resolving the conflict - military. Until recently, Alexander 2 did not dare to start a war with Turkey, because he was worried that the war would again turn into resistance of European countries to Russian foreign policy. On April 12, 1877, Alexander 2 signed a manifesto declaring war on the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the emperor concluded an agreement with Austria-Hungary on the latter’s non-entry on the side of Turkey. In exchange for neutrality, Austria-Hungary was to receive Bosnia.

Map of the Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878

Main battles of the war

Several important battles took place between April and August 1877:

• Already on the first day of the war, Russian troops captured key Turkish fortresses on the Danube and also crossed the Caucasian border.
• On April 18, Russian troops captured Boyazet, an important Turkish fortress in Armenia. However, already in the period June 7-28, the Turks tried to carry out a counter-offensive; Russian troops survived the heroic struggle.
• At the beginning of the summer, General Gurko's troops captured the ancient Bulgarian capital of Tarnovo, and on July 5 they established control over the Shipka Pass, through which the road to Istanbul went.
• During May-August, Romanians and Bulgarians began to massively create partisan detachments to help the Russians in the war with the Ottomans.

Battle of Plevna in 1877

The main problem for Russia was that the emperor’s inexperienced brother, Nikolai Nikolaevich, commanded the troops. Therefore, individual Russian troops actually acted without a center, which means they acted as uncoordinated units. As a result, on July 7-18, two unsuccessful attempts were made to storm Plevna, as a result of which about 10 thousand Russians died. In August, the third assault began, which turned into a protracted blockade. At the same time, from August 9 until December 28, the heroic defense of the Shipka Pass lasted. In this sense, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, even briefly, seems very contradictory in events and personalities.

In the autumn of 1877, the key battle took place near the Plevna fortress. By order of the Minister of War D. Milyutin, the army abandoned the assault on the fortress and moved on to a systematic siege. The army of Russia, as well as its ally Romania, numbered about 83 thousand people, and the garrison of the fortress consisted of 34 thousand soldiers. The last battle near Plevna took place on November 28, the Russian army emerged victorious and was finally able to capture the impregnable fortress. This was one of the largest defeats of the Turkish army: 10 generals and several thousand officers were captured. In addition, Russia was establishing control over an important fortress, opening its way to Sofia. This was the beginning of a turning point in the Russian-Turkish war.

Eastern front

On the eastern front, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 also developed rapidly. At the beginning of November, another important strategic fortress was captured - Kars. Due to simultaneous failures on two fronts, Turkey completely lost control over the movement of its own troops. On December 23, the Russian army entered Sofia.

Russia entered 1878 with a complete advantage over the enemy. On January 3, the assault on Phillipopolis began, and already on the 5th the city was taken, and the road to Istanbul was opened for the Russian Empire. On January 10, Russia enters Adrianople, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire is a fact, the Sultan is ready to sign peace on Russia’s terms. Already on January 19, the parties agreed on a preliminary agreement, which significantly strengthened Russia’s role in the Black and Marmara Seas, as well as in the Balkans. This caused great concern in European countries.

Reaction of major European powers to the successes of Russian troops

England expressed its dissatisfaction most of all, which already at the end of January sent a fleet into the Sea of ​​Marmara, threatening an attack in the event of a Russian invasion of Istanbul. England demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn from the Turkish capital, and also begin to develop a new treaty. Russia found itself in a difficult situation, which threatened to repeat the scenario of 1853-1856, when the entry of European troops violated Russia's advantage, which led to defeat. Taking this into account, Alexander 2 agreed to revise the treaty.

On February 19, 1878, in a suburb of Istanbul, San Stefano, a new treaty was signed with the participation of England.

The main results of the war were recorded in the San Stefano Peace Treaty:

• Russia annexed Bessarabia, as well as part of Turkish Armenia.
• Türkiye paid an indemnity of 310 million rubles to the Russian Empire.
• Russia received the right to have a Black Sea fleet in Sevastopol.
• Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained independence, and Bulgaria received this status 2 years later, after the final withdrawal of Russian troops from there (who were there in case Turkey tried to return the territory).
• Bosnia and Herzegovina received autonomy status, but were actually occupied by Austria-Hungary.
• In peacetime, Turkey was supposed to open ports to all ships heading to Russia.
• Turkey was obliged to organize reforms in the cultural sphere (in particular for the Slavs and Armenians).

However, these conditions did not suit the European states. As a result, in June-July 1878, a congress was held in Berlin, at which some decisions were revised:

1. Bulgaria was divided into several parts, and only the northern part received independence, while the southern part was returned to Turkey.
2. The amount of indemnity decreased.
3. England received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary received the official right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Heroes of War

The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 traditionally became a “minute of glory” for many soldiers and military leaders. In particular, several Russian generals became famous:

• Joseph Gurko. Hero of the capture of the Shipka Pass, as well as the capture of Adrianople.
• Mikhail Skobilev. He led the heroic defense of the Shipka Pass, as well as the capture of Sofia. He received the nickname “White General”, and is considered a national hero among the Bulgarians.
• Mikhail Loris-Melikov. Hero of the battles for Boyazet in the Caucasus.

In Bulgaria there are over 400 monuments erected in honor of the Russians who fought in the war with the Ottomans in 1877-1878. There are many memorial plaques, mass graves, etc. One of the most famous monuments is the Freedom Monument on the Shipka Pass. There is also a monument to Emperor Alexander 2. There are also many settlements named after Russians. Thus, the Bulgarian people thank the Russians for the liberation of Bulgaria from Turkey, and the end of Muslim rule, which lasted more than five centuries. During the war, the Bulgarians called the Russians themselves “brothers,” and this word remained in the Bulgarian language as a synonym for “Russians.”

Historical reference

Historical significance of the war

The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 ended with the complete and unconditional victory of the Russian Empire, however, despite the military success, European states quickly resisted the strengthening of Russia's role in Europe. In an effort to weaken Russia, England and Turkey insisted that not all the aspirations of the southern Slavs were realized, in particular, not the entire territory of Bulgaria received independence, and Bosnia passed from Ottoman occupation to Austrian occupation. As a result, the national problems of the Balkans became even more complicated, eventually turning the region into the “powder keg of Europe.” It was here that the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne took place, becoming the reason for the outbreak of the First World War. This is generally a funny and paradoxical situation - Russia wins victories on the battlefields, but over and over again suffers defeats in the diplomatic fields.

Russia regained its lost territories and the Black Sea Fleet, but never achieved the desire to dominate the Balkan Peninsula. This factor was also used by Russia when entering the First World War. For the Ottoman Empire, which was completely defeated, the idea of ​​revenge persisted, which forced it to enter into a world war against Russia. These were the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which we briefly reviewed today.

The war between Turkey and Russia in 1877-1878. was unleashed as a result of the political crisis that gripped Europe in the early 70s of the 19th century.

The main causes and prerequisites of the war

In 1875, an uprising against the Turkish Sultan broke out in Bosnia and within a few months spread to the territories of Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro and Bulgaria. The Turkish army was forced to suppress the Slavic resistance, which brought huge human losses for these states.

The forces of the warring parties were unequal; the small Slavic states had neither a professional army nor a material and technical base. To free ourselves from Turkish expansion, the help of other, strong states was required, thus the Russian Empire was drawn into the conflict.

The Russian government at first acted as an arbiter, trying to try sides, but with the strengthening of the anti-Slovenian policy of the Tupets Sultan, it was forced to enter into confrontation with the Ottoman Empire.

Military operations in the Turkish War

The Russian emperor tried to delay hostilities with all available methods: the reformation of the army, which began in the late 60s, was not yet completed, the military industry was operating at a low level, and there was an acute shortage of ammunition and weapons.

Despite this, in May 1877, Russia entered into active military confrontation. The fighting took place in two theaters, the Transcaucasian and the Balkan. During the period from July to October, the Russian army, together with the military forces of Bulgaria and Romania, won a number of victories on the Balkan front.

At the beginning of 1878, the Allied army was able to overcome the Balkan Mountains and occupy part of southern Bulgaria, where the decisive fighting took place. Under the leadership of the outstanding general M. D. Skoblev, Russian troops not only held back a large-scale enemy offensive from all fronts, but already in early January 1879 were able to occupy Adrianople and reach Constantinople.

Significant successes were also achieved on the Transcaucasian front. In November 1877, the Russian army stormed the main strategic object of the Ottoman Empire, the Kare fortress. Turkey's defeat in the war became obvious.

Peace Treaty and Berlin Congress

In mid-1878, in the Constantinople suburb of San Stefano, a peace treaty was concluded between the warring parties. According to the agreement, the Balkan states received sovereignty and independence from the Ottoman Empire.

The Russian Empire, as a winner, regained Southern Bessarabia, lost during the Crimean War, and also acquired new military bases in the Caucasus Ardahan, Bayazet, Batum and Kara. Possession of these fortresses meant complete control by Russia of the actions of the Turkish government in the Transcaucasian region.

The states of Europe could not come to terms with the fact that the position of the Russian Empire was strengthening on the Balkan Peninsula. In the summer of 1878, a congress was convened in Berlin, in which the parties to the Russian-Turkish war and European countries took part.

Under political pressure from Austria-Hungary and England, the Balkan states were forced to renounce the sovereignty of Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina actually became colonies of European powers. The Ottoman Empire gave England the island of Cyprus for its support.

The war that broke out between the Russian Empire and Turkey in 1877 became a logical continuation of another armed conflict between the countries - the Crimean War. The distinctive features of the military operations were the short duration of the confrontations, Russia's significant superiority on the battle fronts from the first days of the war, and the global consequences that affected many countries and peoples. The confrontation ended in 1878, after which events began to occur that laid the foundation for contradictions on a global scale.

The Ottoman Empire, which was constantly in a fever from uprisings in the Balkans, was not preparing for another war with Russia. But I didn’t want to lose my own possessions, so another military confrontation began between the two empires. After the end of the country, there was no open war for several decades, until World War I.

Opposing parties

• Ottoman Empire.
• Russia.
• Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, the principality of Wallachia and Moldavia became Russia's allies.
• Porto (as European diplomats called the government of the Ottoman Empire) was supported by the rebel peoples of Chechnya, Dagestan, Abkhazia, as well as the Polish Legion.

Causes of the conflict

Another conflict between countries was provoked by a complex of factors, interconnected and constantly deepening. Both the Turkish Sultan and Emperor Alexander II understood that war could not be avoided. The main reasons for the confrontation include:

• Russia lost in the Crimean War, so it wanted revenge. Ten years - from 1860 to 1870. - the emperor and his ministers pursued an active foreign policy in an eastern direction, trying to resolve the Turkish issue.
• The political and socio-economic crisis deepened in the Russian Empire;
• Russia's desire to enter the international arena. To this end, the empire's diplomatic service was strengthened and developed. Gradually, rapprochement began with Germany and Austria-Hungary, with which Russia signed the “Union of Three Emperors.”
• While the authority and position of the Russian Empire in the international arena was strengthening, Turkey was losing its allies. The country began to be called the “sick man” of Europe.
• In the Ottoman Empire, the economic crisis caused by the feudal way of life worsened significantly.
• In the political sphere, the situation was also critical. During 1876, three sultans were replaced, who could not cope with the discontent of the population and pacify the Balkan peoples.
• Movements for national independence of the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula intensified. The latter saw Russia as the guarantor of their freedom from the Turks and Islam.

The immediate reason for the outbreak of the war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which broke out there in 1875. At the same time, Turkey was conducting military operations against Serbia, and the Sultan refused to stop the fight there, citing the fact that these were internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire.

Russia turned to Austria-Hungary, France, England and Germany with a request to exert influence on Turkey. But the attempts of Emperor Alexander II were unsuccessful. England refused to intervene at all, and Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire began to adjust the proposals received from Russia.

The main task of the Western allies was to preserve the integrity of Turkey in order to prevent the strengthening of Russia. England also pursued its own interests. The government of this country invested a lot of financial resources in the Turkish economy, so it was necessary to preserve the Ottoman Empire, completely subordinating it to British influence.

Austria-Hungary maneuvered between Russia and Turkey, but did not intend to provide support to any state. As part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, there lived a huge number of Slavic peoples who demanded independence, just like the Slavs within Turkey.

Finding itself in a rather difficult foreign policy situation, Russia decided to support the Slavic peoples in the Balkans. If there were an emperor, the prestige of the state would fall.

On the eve of the war, various Slavic societies and committees began to emerge in Russia, which called on the emperor to free the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke. The revolutionary forces in the empire hoped that Russia would begin its own national liberation uprising, which would result in the overthrow of tsarism.

Progress of the war

The conflict began with a manifesto signed in April 1877 by Alexander II. This was a virtual declaration of war. After this, a parade and prayer service were held in Chisinau, which blessed the actions of the Russian army against Turkey in the struggle for the liberation of the Slavic peoples.

Already in May, the Russian army was introduced into Romania, which made it possible to launch attacks on the Porte’s possessions on the European continent. The Romanian army became an ally of the Russian Empire only in the autumn of 1877.

Simultaneously with the attack on Turkey, Alexander II began to carry out military reform aimed at reorganizing the army. Almost 700 thousand soldiers fought against the Ottoman Empire. The strength of the Turkish army was about 281 thousand soldiers. But the advantage in the tactical position was on the side of the Porte, which could fight in the Black Sea. Russia gained access to it only in the early 1870s, so the Black Sea Fleet was not ready by that time.

Military operations were carried out on two fronts:

• Asian;
• European.

The troops of the Russian Empire on the Balkan Peninsula were led by Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, the Turkish army was led by Abdul Kerim Nadir Pasha. The offensive in Romania made it possible to eliminate the Turkish river fleet on the Danube. This made it possible to begin the siege of the city of Plevna at the end of July 1877. During this time, the Turks fortified Istanbul and other strategically important points, hoping to stop the advance of Russian troops.

Plevna was taken only at the end of December 1877, and the emperor immediately gave the order to move on, to cross the Balkan Mountains. At the beginning of January 1878, the Churyak pass was overcome, and the Russian army entered the territory of Bulgaria. Major cities were taken in turn, the last to surrender was Adrianople, where a temporary truce was signed on January 31.

In the Caucasian theater of military operations, leadership belonged to Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich and General Mikhail Loris-Melikov. In mid-October 1877, Turkish troops, led by Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha, surrendered at Aladzhi. Until November 18, the last fortress of Kare held out, which soon had no garrison left. When the last soldiers were withdrawn, the fortress surrendered.

The Russian-Turkish war actually ended, but all victories still had to be secured legally.

Results and results

The final feature in the conflict between the Porte and Russia was the signing of the San Stefano Peace Treaty. This happened on March 3 (old style - February 19) 1878. The terms of the agreement secured the following conquests for Russia:

• Vast territories in Transcaucasia, including fortresses, Qare, Bayazet, Batum, Ardagan.
• Russian troops continued to remain in Bulgaria for 2 years.
• The Empire received back Southern Bessarabia.

The winners were Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria, which received autonomy. Bulgaria became a principality, which became a vassal of Turkey. But this was a formality, since the country’s leadership pursued its own foreign policy, formed a government, and created an army.

Montenegro, Serbia and Romania became completely independent from the Porte, which was obliged to pay a large indemnity to Russia. Emperor Alexander II celebrated the victory very noisily, distributing awards, estates, statuses and positions in the government to his closest relatives.

Negotiations in Berlin

The peace treaty in San Stefano could not resolve many issues, so a special meeting of the great powers was organized in Berlin. His work began on June 1 (June 13), 1878 and lasted exactly a month.

The “ideological inspirers” of the congress were the Austro-Hungarian and British empires, which suited the fact that Turkey was rather weakened. But the governments of these states did not like the appearance of the Bulgarian Principality in the Balkans and the strengthening of Serbia. It was them that England and Austria-Hungary considered as outposts for Russia’s advancement further into the Balkan Peninsula.

Alexander II could not fight against two strong European states at once. There were neither resources nor money for this, and the internal situation within the country did not allow getting involved in hostilities again. The Emperor tried to find support in Germany from Otto von Bismarck, but received a diplomatic refusal. The Chancellor proposed holding an international conference to finally resolve the “Eastern Question.” The venue for the congress was Berlin.

The main characters who distributed roles and drew up agendas were delegates from Germany, Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, and Britain. Representatives from other countries were also present - Italy, Turkey, Greece, Iran, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia. The leadership of the congress was taken over by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The final document - the act - was signed by all participants in the congress on July 1 (13), 1878. Its terms reflected all the contradictory points of view on resolving the “Eastern Question”. Germany, in particular, did not want Russia's position in Europe to strengthen. France, on the contrary, tried to ensure that the demands of the Russian emperor were satisfied as much as possible. But the French delegation was afraid of the strengthening of Germany, so they provided their support secretly and timidly. Taking advantage of the situation, Austria-Hungary and England imposed their conditions on Russia. Thus, the final results of the Berlin Congress were as follows:

• Bulgaria was divided into two parts - Northern and Southern. Northern Bulgaria continued to remain a principality, and Southern Bulgaria received the name Eastern Rumelia, as an autonomous province within the Porte.
• The independence of the Balkan states was confirmed - Serbia, Romania, Montenegro, the territory of which was significantly reduced. Serbia received part of the territories claimed by Bulgaria.
• Russia was forced to return the Bayazet fortress to the Ottoman Empire.
• Turkey's military indemnity to the Russian Empire amounted to 300 million rubles.
• Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Russia received the southern part of Bessarabia.
• The Danube River was declared free for navigation.

England, as one of the initiators of the congress, did not receive any territorial “bonuses”. But the British leadership did not need this, since all changes to the Peace of San Stefano were developed and introduced by English delegates. Defending Turkey's interests at the conference was not a free act. Exactly a week before the opening of the Berlin Congress, the Porte transferred the island of Cyprus to England.

Thus, the Berlin Congress significantly redrew the map of Europe, weakening the position of the Russian Empire and prolonging the agony of Turkey. Many territorial problems were never resolved, and contradictions between national states deepened.

The results of the congress determined the balance of power in the international arena, which a few decades later led to the First World War.

The Slavic peoples of the Balkans benefited most from the war. In particular, Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro became independent, and Bulgarian statehood began to form. The creation of independent countries intensified national movements in Austria-Hungary and Russia and exacerbated social contradictions in society. The international conference solved the problems of European states and planted a time bomb in the Balkans. It was from this region that the First World War began. The development of such a situation was foreseen by Otto von Bismarck, who called the Balkans the “powder keg” of Europe.