Russian painting of the 14th century Theophanes the Greek. The origins of ancient Russian painting. Feofan the Greek

Introduction

3. Sad misunderstanding

4. Living legacy

Frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street

Conclusion

1. Introduction

Byzantine art of the early 14th century, subtle and refined, was a branch of chamber court culture. One of his characteristic features is his love for the ancient past, the study of all kinds of works of ancient classics, literary and artistic, and imitation of them. All this was accompanied by excellent education, perfect taste and high professional skill of all the creators of this culture, including artists.

The theme of this art, of course, was ecclesiastical; the attraction to antiquity was manifested only in style and forms, for which the classical model became an almost obligatory model. In the ensembles of mosaics and frescoes, previously unknown scenic qualities, plot details, and literary qualities appeared; iconographic programs expanded, they included many rather complex allegories and symbols, all kinds of allusions to the Old Testament, echoes of the texts of liturgical hymns, which required both the creators and the contemplatives theological preparedness and intellectual erudition. This learned aspect of culture was less reflected in the icons of the Palaiologan Renaissance; its features were manifested in them most of all in the nature of the images and in the artistic style.

2. The life and work of Theophanes the Greek

In the middle of the 12th century, the Novgorod Republic became an independent state. The Novgorodians escaped the general devastation to which the Russian lands were subjected during the years of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Against the backdrop of a general catastrophe, Novgorod not only managed to survive, but also increased its wealth. The city was divided into fifteen “ends” - districts, which, like individual streets, competed with each other in the construction of the so-called “Konchansky” and “Ulichansky” churches and decorating them with frescoes. It is known that from the 10th century to 1240, 125 churches were built in Novgorod. By special invitation, Theophanes the Greek (about 1340 - about 1410), a remarkable Byzantine painter, arrived in Novgorod.

Theophanes the Greek is one of the few Byzantine master icon painters whose name remains in history, perhaps due to the fact that, being in the prime of his creative powers, he left his homeland and worked in Rus' until his death, where they knew how to appreciate the individuality of the painter. This brilliant “Byzantine” or “Grechin” was destined to play a decisive role in the awakening of the Russian artistic genius.

Brought up on strict canons, he already in his youth surpassed them in many ways. His art turned out to be the last flower on the dry soil of Byzantine culture. If he had remained to work in Constantinople, he would have turned into one of the faceless Byzantine icon painters, whose work emanates coldness and boredom. But he didn't stay. The further he moved from the capital, the wider his horizons became, the more independent his convictions.

In Galata (a Genoese colony) he came into contact with Western culture. He saw her palazzo and churches, observed free Western morals, unusual for a Byzantine. The businesslike nature of the inhabitants of Galata was sharply different from the way of Byzantine society, which was in no hurry, lived in the old fashioned way, and was mired in theological disputes. He could have emigrated to Italy, as many of his talented fellow tribesmen did. But, apparently, it was not possible to part with the Orthodox faith. He directed his feet not to the west, but to the east.

Feofan the Greek came to Rus' as a mature, established master. Thanks to him, Russian painters had the opportunity to get acquainted with Byzantine art performed not by an ordinary master craftsman, but by a genius.

His creative mission began in the 1370s in Novgorod, where he painted the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (1378). Prince Dmitry Donskoy lured him to Moscow. Here Theophanes supervised the paintings of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405). He painted a number of remarkable icons, among which (presumably) the famous Our Lady of the Don, which became the national shrine of Russia (Initially, the “Our Lady of the Don” was located in the Assumption Cathedral in the city of Kolomna, erected in memory of the victory of the Russian army on the Kulikovo Field. Ivan the Terrible prayed before her as he departed on a trip to Kazan).

Little information about Theophanes is found in Moscow and Novgorod chronicles. The main source of biographical information about him is a letter from the student of Sergius of Radonezh, Epiphanius the Wise, to the Archimandrite of the Tver Spaso-Athanasiev Monastery, Kirill (c. 1415). It is reported there that at the beginning of the 15th century. in Moscow there lived “a glorious sage, a very cunning philosopher, Theophan, a Greek by birth, a master book painter and an excellent painter among icon painters, who with his own hand painted many different stone churches - more than forty, which are located in the cities: in Constantinople and Chalcedon and Galata (Genoese quarter in Constantinople), and in Cafe (Feodosia), and in Veliky Novgorod, and in Nizhny." For Epiphanius himself, Theophanes painted “an image of the great St. Sophia of Constantinople.” The only work of his that has reached us and has precise documentary evidence is the paintings of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street (in Novgorod the Great), mentioned in the Novgorod III Chronicle in 1378. Chronicles and Epiphanius also indicate that in the Moscow Kremlin, Theophan decorated with frescoes the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary with the chapel of St. Lazarus (together with Semyon Cherny, 1395), the Archangel Cathedral (1399) and the Annunciation Cathedral (together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor from Gorodets, 1405), however, all of these works have not survived. It is customary to associate with his name the icons of the Deesis rite of the Annunciation Cathedral, the Transfiguration icon from Pereyaslavl-Zalessky (1403) and the Mother of God of Don from Kolomna (with the Assumption on the reverse, 1380). From book miniatures he is credited with the initials “Gospel of the Cat” (c. 1392, Russian State Library, Moscow).

The wonderful frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin are the standard by which the art of the Greek master is judged. These images (Christ Pantocrator surrounded by archangels and seraphim in the dome, forefathers and prophets in the drum, Our Lady of the Sign with the Archangel Gabriel, the Trinity, Adoration of the Sacrifice and figures of saints in the corner Trinity chapel in the choir) are full of impressive internal drama; freely and picturesquely applied colors are subordinated to a general muted tone, against the background of which bright, contrasting spaces seem to be flashes of some kind of spiritual lightning that cuts through the darkness of the material world, illuminating holy faces and figures. Compared to the blissful harmony of art Andrey Rublev<#"justify">3. Sad misunderstanding

The dispute has been going on for a long time. It arose almost simultaneously with the discovery of the works themselves, which attracted the attention of all those interested in our ancient art at that time. Since the time when the frescoes of Novgorod churches at the end of the fourteenth century first became known, the circle of these persons has increased many times.

The name of Theophanes the Greek was put in direct connection with these discoveries. The talk was about the Novgorod churches of the Transfiguration, Fyodor Stratelates and Volotovo Pole, as well as the Deesis rite of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and the icons of Our Lady of the Don and the Transfiguration kept in the Tretyakov Gallery.

At first, almost all researchers and experts in ancient art attributed the listed works to the works of Theophanes the Greek. Muratov, Anisimov and Grabar spoke affirmatively in this sense. But after this generation, which had already passed, new art critics came forward, mainly in the person of Lazarev and Alpatov, who left for Feofan only those works that the chronicles directly indicate, that is, the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin (Novgorod) and the central images of the Annunciation Deesis in Moscow Kremlin. Everything else is questioned, or attributed to his assistants, Greeks or Russians, or to an unknown master who worked at that time and along with Feofan - his “alter ego,” as one of the critics put it.

What makes the issue raised fundamental and fundamental is the possibility of gross distortions and errors in art history. One should also not deprive the great master of his property and his glory, which undoubtedly belong to him.

Those who are accustomed to proceeding from the “letter” should try to penetrate into the spirit that permeates this art, which is impossible to imitate, since it is imbued with the breath of genius, which as such has no repetitions.

The fact that a ghost is released onto the stage under the name of “alter ego” Feofan is an unworthy and unreasonable invention that can arise in an undemanding imagination spoiled by “literature.”

Arguments denying that the listed works belong to Theophanes boil down to the following:

Insufficient identity and incomplete coincidence in pictorial forms and colors in all three churches and icons from the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery;

Gradual Russification of the faces depicted on the frescoes;

Heterogeneity in the degree of perfection in the execution of the above-mentioned frescoes.

Those who defend the attribution of these creations to Theophanes argue that the enormous height of the art of the listed works is such that it is impossible to consider them as originating from more than one and only person. That the similarities undoubtedly and unconditionally exceed and cover those minor differences that can be found upon petty and meticulous examination, and in many cases these differences rather confirm than refute a single authorship.

There are also differences that cannot be called petty. They express themselves very clearly, one might say with deliberate clarity. These are different color solutions, a different choice of tones in all three Novgorod churches.

But this is direct proof that the master who created the paintings did not want repetitions, that in the arsenal of his decisions there was wealth that he could use according to his intentions and his choice.

Let us imagine the original painting recorded in the chronicles of the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration. In the most general words, its color can be expressed as gold and silver. Its color, despite all its richness, is kept to a minimum. There is not even the ever-decorating blue in the backgrounds, and, however, powerful contrasts create a wealth of life ideas with extraordinary brightness.

Let's try to imagine what Theophanes had to do when, after finishing the painting in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin, which he liked (and, undoubtedly, even amazed the Novgorodians), he was offered to paint the almost adjacent Church of Fyodor Stratelates. Repeat what has been done? No, that would not be in the character of this person. Let us not forget the testimony of Epiphanius that before his arrival in Russia, Feofan painted about forty churches. This is not surprising for a person of such temperament, talent, culture and experience. In him, picturesque ideas boiled in abundance.

And most importantly, sensitivity to the culture of the past, dating back thousands of years, lived in the soul of this man - this proves his creativity, understood in its true meaning. And of course, almost the first in importance for a born painter was the question of color.

For him, there was an internal need to introduce something new into the work that he had to create next to what he had previously completed in Novgorod (painting the Church of the Transfiguration). This new was supposed to support with its novelty and emphasize the dignity of the old, and, at the same time, delight with its originality. And this was achieved in all the frescoes of the Church of Theodore Stratelates.

The gentle sound of blue, pink, and golden tones created new music, no less beautiful than in the Savior of the Transfiguration. New, but also naturally and inextricably linked with the first.

Finally, Volotovo Field, which, alas, we will no longer be able to see (apparently, this was Feofan’s last work in Novgorod). There is a new solution, where blue, red and gold in all its richness unfolded their unforgettable harmony.

Yes, these are the main differences between all three paintings, but they stem from the basis of the nature of the talent of this master, for whom mechanical repetitions were impossible. This is emphasized by other characteristic examples: to prove that Volotovo does not belong to the brush of Theophanes, they point out that Melchizedek of the Transfiguration does not resemble the same patriarch in Volotovo. In the first case, he is wrapped in loose robes without any decoration, in the other, his clothes are decorated with pearls and embroidery. And in this case, we can feel that living spring of fantasy that permeates the artist’s work. It is impossible to imagine Feofan repeating himself. On the contrary, it is logical to imagine it showing a new aspect of the same image.

However, there is, of course, something in all his works that certainly proves that they belong to the same author. These are some details that are as typical as the style of letters or the stroke in a signature. These are, for example, the drawing of hands (the analogy in the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration, the Church of Stratelates - in the figures...). The details of architecture and accessories in the frescoes are the same (the table in the “Bishop’s Meal” in Volotovo and the table in the “Trinity” from the Church of the Transfiguration). If we go from such particulars, then, of course, we can point to the structure or design of the figures and their movements, so clearly united in all three temples in the infinite number of their connections. And what is most important, unique, inimitable, unattainable - for any of the contemporary masters, or for those who followed him - is their deeply organized, dynamically resolved space, in its full plastic implementation.

This is the main feature of the work of Theophanes the Greek. We do not know either before or after him such a completion of spatial tasks. Neither in Byzantium, nor in Russian art of subsequent times will we find a similar, natural in its pattern, deep and fundamentally real space. We know other solutions, perhaps no less beautiful, but what was achieved by Feofan in his ideal and at the same time real space, we will not find such perfection anywhere else. The best that was created of this kind in Byzantium (for example, the mosaic in Kyakhrie Jami, and others) is inferior to it in many ways.

And this dynamic, deep space unites all the paintings of the Novgorod churches in question. They are united by both pictorial erudition and the seemingly inexhaustible inventiveness of a philosopher, scientist and connoisseur of dogmatic and church institutions, who freely and boldly, if not boldly, resolves issues related to the dogmas of religion and the methods of sacred images. They are also united by the nature of the form, which absorbed all the best features of antiquity through the art of Byzantium - for example, in the frescoes “The Path of Christ to Golgotha” in the Church of Fyodor Stratelates, the angels in the “Ascension” in Volotovo, the “Trinity” of the Church of the Transfiguration, the “Resurrection” in Church of Theodore Stratelates and much more, if not everything else. One could say that in the history of art there are no works so connected by the unity of will and the personality that unites them, as in the painting of these three Novgorod churches.

And so, there is a desire to artificially separate them on the basis of analytical criticism. Let us consider the evidence provided by opponents of the unity of authorship of these works. Here, for example, is an indication that in two churches painted by Theophan later, the faces acquire more Russified features than in the Church of the Transfiguration. Although this is controversial, we will not object in this case. Isn’t it better to think that Theophanes, who had already lived perhaps for several years among the Russians, was surrounded by Russian faces, and this could not but affect the nature of his work, especially since there are completely portrait images of two Russian bishops, made by the master’s hand from the faces he directly seen. It is further said that in the painting of the Church of Fyodor Stratilates the figures are more squat than in the Church of the Transfiguration. But both here and there there are figures of different ratios and proportions, for example, the “Prophet” in the Church of Fyodor Stratelates, whose figure is elongated more than any other in the Church of the Transfiguration. Finally, a significant indication is given that the figures of the prophets in the dome of the Church of Fyodor Stratilates are not painted as confidently in design as the same ones in the Church of the Transfiguration. We can agree with this, and since these figures in the drum of the dome, from the point of view of the viewer standing on the floor of the temple, are almost lost, it is possible that these images were partially painted by some of his assistants. But it is likely that this was done by Feofan himself in moments of fatigue and weariness. Those who work directly with a brush know how much depends even on the quality of the brush itself. In a word, many explanations for some weakening of the design in these details of the painting, and quite plausible ones, can be found. But here we must point out the magnificent design and form in other images in this temple: “The Prophet”, “Angels”, “The Path of Christ to Calvary” and other examples of the energy and beauty of form. The heads of the angels from the “Trinity” of the Transfiguration of the Savior are also named, and many other things of the same kind could be named; but they forget that what remains of the painting of the first two churches is only a very small part of them, and in the Volotovo Temple, which represented the most complete painting, can only be judged by photographs, fortunately taken in time and now priceless for us.

Let's move on to the easel works that various authors attribute to Theophanes the Greek. And here the undeniable is the indication of the chronicle about the figures of the Deesis rank in the Moscow Kremlin, on which Feofan and his collaborators worked. If it were not for this mandatory indication, we, of course, would have heard very different opinions regarding the attribution of these works to one or another master or school, since these altar icons have no direct connections with the frescoes of the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration.

Thus, there is no absolutely solid basis for comparison. These foundations exist only in an impartial consideration based on the feeling of the whole, which says that what is done is created by one will.

4. Living legacy

Icon painting appeared in Rus' in the 10th century, after in 988 Rus' adopted a new religion from Byzantium - Christianity. By this time, in Byzantium itself, icon painting had finally turned into a strictly legalized, recognized canonical system of images. Worship of the icon has become an integral part of Christian doctrine and worship. Thus, Rus' received the icon as one of foundations of a new religion.

N: Symbolism of temples: 4 walls of the temple, united by one chapter - 4 cardinal directions under the authority of a single universal church; the altar in all churches was placed in the east: according to the Bible, in the east was the heavenly land - Eden; According to the Gospel, the ascension of Christ took place in the east. And so on, so, in general, the system of paintings of the Christian church was a strictly thought-out whole.

The extreme expression of freethinking in Rus' in the 14th century. The Strigolnik heresy began in Novgorod and Pskov: they taught that religion is everyone’s internal affair and every person has the right to be a teacher of faith; they denied the church, spiritually, church rites and sacraments, they called on the people not to confess to the priests, but to repent of their sins mother's damp earth . The art of Novgorod and Pskov in the 14th century as a whole clearly reflects the growing free-thinking. Artists strive for images that are more vibrant and dynamic than before. Interest in dramatic plots arises, interest in the inner world of a person awakens. The artistic quest of the 14th century masters explains why Novgorod could become the place of activity of one of the most rebellious artists of the Middle Ages - the Byzantine Theophanes the Greek.

Feofan came to Novgorod, obviously, in the 70s of the 14th century. Before that, he worked in Constantinople and cities nearby the capital, then moved to Kaffa, from where he was probably invited to Novgorod. In 1378, Theophanes performed his first work in Novgorod - he painted the Church of the Transfiguration with frescoes.

It is enough to compare Elder Melchizedek from this church with Jonah from the Skovorodsky Monastery to understand what a stunning impression Theophan’s art must have made on his Russian contemporaries. Feofan’s characters not only look different from each other, they live and express themselves in different ways. Each character of Feofan is an unforgettable human image. Through movements, pose, gesture, the artist knows how to make visible inner man . The gray-bearded Melchizedek, with a majestic movement worthy of a descendant of the Hellenes, holds the scroll with the prophecy. There is no Christian humility and piety in his posture.

Feofan thinks of the figure three-dimensionally, plastically. He clearly imagines how the body is located in space, therefore, despite the conventional background, his figures seem surrounded by space, living in it. Feofan attached great importance to the transfer of volume in painting. His method of modeling is effective, although at first glance it seems sketchy and even careless. Feofan paints the basic tone of the face and clothes with wide, free strokes. On top of the main tone in certain places - above the eyebrows, on the bridge of the nose, under the eyes - he applies light highlights and spaces with sharp, well-aimed strokes of the brush. With the help of highlights, the artist not only accurately conveys the volume, but also achieves the impression of convexity of the form, which was not achieved by the masters of earlier times. Feofan’s figures of saints, illuminated by flashes of light, acquire a special trepidation and mobility.

A miracle is always invisibly present in Theophan’s art. The cloak of Melchizedek covers the figure so quickly, as if it had energy or was electrified.

The icon is exceptionally monumental. The figures stand out in clear silhouette against a shining golden background, laconic, generalized decorative colors sound tense: snow-white Christ's tunic, the velvety blue maforium of the Mother of God, John's green robes. And although in the icons Feofana retains the picturesque manner of his paintings, the line becomes clearer, simpler, more restrained.

Feofan’s images contain enormous power of emotional impact; they contain tragic pathos. Acute drama is present in the master’s very picturesque language. Feofan's writing style is sharp, impetuous, and temperamental. He is first and foremost a painter and babbles figures with energetic, bold strokes, applying bright highlights, which gives the faces trepidation and emphasizes the intensity of expression. The color scheme, as a rule, is laconic and restrained, but the color is rich, weighty, and the brittle, sharp lines and complex rhythm of the compositional structure further enhance the overall expressiveness of the images.

The paintings of Theophanes the Greek were created on the basis of knowledge of life and human psychology. They contain a deep philosophical meaning; the insightful mind and passionate, ebullient temperament of the author are clearly felt.

Almost no icons made by Theophanes have survived to this day. Apart from the icons from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, we do not know reliably any of his easel works. However, with a high degree of probability, Feofan can be credited with the remarkable Dormition written on the reverse side of the icon Our Lady of the Don.

IN Dormition what is depicted is what is usually depicted in icons of this subject. The apostles stand at Mary's funeral bed. The golden figure of Christ with a snow-white baby - the soul of the Mother of God in his hands - goes up. Christ is surrounded by a blue-dark mandola. On either side of it stand two tall buildings, vaguely reminiscent of the two-story towers with mourners in the Pskov icon of the Assumption .

Theophan's apostles are not like strict Greek men. They huddled around the bed without any order. Not a shared enlightened grief, but each person’s personal feeling - confusion, surprise, despair, sad reflection on death - can be read on their simple faces. Many people would not be able to look at dead Mary. One peeks slightly over his neighbor’s shoulder, ready to lower his head at any moment. The other, huddled in the far corner, watches what is happening with one eye. John the Theologian almost hid behind the high bed, looking out from behind it in despair and horror.

Above Mary’s bed, above the figures of the apostles and saints, rises Christ shining in gold with the soul of the Mother of God in his hands. The apostles do not see Christ; his mandola is already a sphere of the miraculous, inaccessible to human gaze. The apostles see only the dead body of Mary, and this sight fills them with horror of death. Them, to earthly people , it is not possible to find out the secret eternal life Maria. The only one who knows this secret is Christ, for he belongs to two worlds at once: the divine and the human. Christ is full of determination and strength, the apostles are full of sorrow and inner turmoil. Sharp sound of colors Assumption as if revealing the extreme degree of mental tension in which the apostles find themselves. Not an abstract, dogmatic idea of afterlife bliss and not a pagan fear of earthly, physical destruction, but intense reflection on death, smart feeling , as such a state was called in the 19th century, is the content of the wonderful icon of Theophanes.

IN Dormition Feofan there is a detail that seems to concentrate the drama of the scene. This candle burning at the bed of the Mother of God. She was not in Tithe Dormition , neither in Paromensky . IN Tithe Dormition Mary’s red shoes are depicted on the stand next to the bed, and in Paromensky - a precious vessel - naive and touching details that connect Mary with the earthly world. Placed in the very center, on the same axis with the figure of Christ and the cherub, the candle in the icon of Theophan seems to be full of special meaning. According to apocryphal legend, Mary lit it before she learned from an angel about her death. A candle is a symbol of the soul of the Mother of God, shining to the world. But for Feofan this is more than an abstract symbol. The flickering flame seems to make it possible to hear the echoing silence of mourning, to feel the coldness and immobility of Mary’s dead body. A dead body is like burnt, cooled wax, from which the fire has disappeared forever - the human soul. The candle burns out, which means that the time of earthly farewell to Mary is ending. In a few moments the shining Christ will disappear, his mandorla held together like a keystone by the fiery cherub. There are many works in world art that would so powerfully make one feel the movement, the transience of time, indifferent to what it is counting down, inexorably leading everything to the end.

The Deesis of the Annunciation Cathedral, regardless of who led its creation, is an important phenomenon in the history of ancient Russian art. This is the first Deesis that has come down to our time, in which the figures of saints are depicted not from the waist up, but to their full height. The real history of the so-called Russian high iconostasis begins with it.

The Deesis tier of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral is a brilliant example of pictorial art. The color range is especially remarkable, which is achieved by combining deep, rich, rich colors. A sophisticated and inexhaustibly inventive colorist, the leading master of Deesis even dares to make tonal comparisons within the same color, painting, for example, the clothes of the Mother of God with dark blue and Her cap with a more open, lightened tone. The artist’s thick, dense colors are exquisitely restrained, slightly dull even in the light part of the spectrum. Then, for example, the unexpectedly bright strokes of red on the image of the book and the boots of the Mother of God are so effective. The manner of writing itself is unusually expressive - broad, free and unmistakably precise.

5. Frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street

The Church of the Transfiguration was painted with frescoes four years after its construction. The only information about this painting is contained in the Novgorod Third Chronicle, compiled at the end of the 17th century. The lengthy edition of the chronicle (the main one) reads: “In the summer of 6886, the Church of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ was signed in the name of the divine Transfiguration by the command of the noble and God-loving boyar Vasily Danilovich and Ilina Street was identified. And the Greek master Feofan signed during the great reign of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich and under Archbishop Alexei of Novgorod and Pskov."

The unique news of the Novgorod Third Chronicle does not belong, as one might assume, to a chronicler of the 14th century. M.K. Karger convincingly showed that this news is a free copy of the ktitor’s inscription that once existed in the temple and then perished. The compiler of the Third Novgorod Chronicle, collecting material for the chronicle code he had conceived, copied, in particular, the inscription in the Church of the Savior. Possible inaccuracies that could have occurred when reproducing the text of the 14th century in the 70s of the 17th century do not deprive the news of the frescoes of historical value. There is no reason to doubt its reliability. It correctly records the date of completion of the frescoes, the patrons, and the name of the master. From the monumental ensemble of frescoes in the Church of the Transfiguration, random fragments have reached us, constituting only part of this pictorial cycle in its original form. Unfortunately, it is impossible to establish when and under what circumstances the painting was lost. Probably, the destruction of painting began in the 14th century, since it is known about a large fire on the Trade Side in 1385, when all the churches here burned down, with the exception of the Church of the Virgin Mary on Mihalitsa: “... the fire was fierce,” reports the compiler of the Novgorod first chronicle, contemporary and eyewitness of the disaster. During restoration work in the Church of the Transfiguration in the 1930s, it was noticed that large deposits of ancient plaster in many places were filled with another, fine-grained and yellowish mass, the edges of which sometimes overlapped adjacent areas of the ancient plaster layer with the remains of painting from 1378. These repairs were not painted, and at one time they, of course, to a large extent spoiled the overall appearance of the painting of the 14th century, since their light spots should have stood out sharply against the background of the surviving areas of ancient painting. Yu.A. Olsufiev assumed that the repairs he discovered were made in the 17th or 18th centuries, since they, like ancient frescoes, were covered with uniform plaster of the 19th century. Obviously, already in the 17th and 18th centuries, Theophanes' frescoes were greatly lost and that it was at this time that a period of periodic renovations of the ancient building and its painting began. A thick outline of new plaster over the remains of the murals of 1378 was probably made in 1858, when the next rebuilders of the Church of the Savior carried out major work in the temple. In order for the plaster to adhere better to the underlying layers, the frescoes of Theophanes that had survived by that time, as well as their replacements, were covered in places with random incisions. The frescoes on the pre-altar pillars, in the deaconne and under the choir were especially damaged by scratches and other mechanical damage. In the dome and sails, the renovators of 1858 re-painted the figures of the forefathers and evangelists; the walls of the main room of the temple were painted green, the pillars pink, and the supporting arches were painted with stars on a white background6. In the corner chamber in the choir, the ancient frescoes were not plastered, but only covered with a thin layer of several whitewashes. As often happened in Russia, scientific attention to the mural painting of Theophan the Greek in the Church of the Savior was drawn precisely at the moment when it was subjected to perhaps the greatest damage in all five centuries of its existence. Archimandrite Macarius, compiler of a fundamental description of Novgorod antiquities and an eyewitness to the barbaric renovation of the Church of the Savior in 1858, mentions, for example, the “renewed” images of the Savior in the dome and the Mother of God in the niche on the western facade in his time. V.V. Suslov then reported on the frescoes of the dome, as well as the drum, where images of angels, seraphim and two prophets could be seen. But traces of 14th-century frescoes were visible in other parts of the church. “The ancient painting of the temple, we read from V.V. Suslov, ... apparently, is preserved under the painting of its walls, since in some places signs of sacred images can be seen.”

V.V. Suslov’s assumption soon prompted researchers of Russian art to begin trial openings of Feofan’s frescoes. These works coincided with the fascination of the advanced circles of society with ancient Russian painting, in the history of which even then Novgorod and the famous artists who worked in Novgorod were rightly assigned an outstanding role. A successful experience in clearing 14th century frescoes in another Novgorod church in 1910-1912, Theodore Stratelates<#"justify">Greek icon painter painting fresco

6. Examples of the work of Theophanes the Greek

Our Lady. Icon of the Deesis tier of the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin

Theophanes the Greek. Frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street. Seraphim between the archangels Raphael and Michael

Theophanes the Greek. Frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street. Abel's head

Theophanes the Greek. Frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street. Anthimus (?) of Nicomedia. Fresco on the southern slope of the arch leading to the diaconium

They are painted:

Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street ( Novgorod<#"226" src="doc_zip5.jpg" />

Savior Almighty. Painting of the dome of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street Veliky Novgorod

Don Icon of the Mother of God.

Saint Macarius of Egypt

Saint Daniel the Stylite

Deesis icon<#"190" src="doc_zip10.jpg" />

John the Baptist<#"168" src="doc_zip11.jpg" />

Transfiguration<#"277" src="doc_zip12.jpg" />

Conclusion

Contemporaries were amazed at the originality of the great painter’s thinking and the free flight of his creative imagination. “When he depicted or wrote all this, no one saw him ever look at the samples, as some of our icon painters do, who constantly peer at them in bewilderment, looking here and there, and do not so much paint with paints as look for samples. He seemed to be painting a painting with his hands, while he himself walked impartially, talked with those who came, and with his mind he pondered the lofty and wise, while with his sensual, intelligent eyes he saw kindness.”

The Byzantine master found a second home in Rus'. His passionate, inspired art was in tune with the worldview of the Russian people, it had a fruitful influence on contemporary Feofan and subsequent generations of Russian artists.

List of used literature

1. Lyubimov L. The Art of Ancient Rus'. M., 1981.

Lazarev V.N. History of Byzantine painting. M., 1986.

Letter from Epiphanius the Wise to Kirill of Tverskoy // Monuments of literature of Ancient Rus' XVI - mid. XV century. M., 1981.

Obolensky D. Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations. M., 1998.

Muravyov A.V., Sakharov A.M. Essays on the history of Russian culture in the 9th-17th centuries. M., 1984.

Argan J.K. The art of Byzantium and barbarian tribes in the Middle Ages. /History of Italian art. - M.: Raduga, 1990.

Grabar I.E. About ancient Russian art. - M.: Nauka, 1966.

Lazarev V.N. Theophanes the Greek. - M., 1961.

Ugrinovich D.M. Religious art and its contradictions. /

Art and religion. - M.: Publishing House of Political Literature, 1983

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Theophanes the Greek (about 1340 - about 1410) was a great Russian and Byzantine icon painter, miniaturist and master of monumental fresco paintings.

Theophanes was born in Byzantium (hence the nickname Greek), before coming to Rus' he worked in Constantinople, Chalcedon (a suburb of Constantinople), Genoese Galata and Cafe (now Feodosia in Crimea) (only frescoes in Feodosia have survived). He probably arrived in Rus' together with Metropolitan Cyprian.

Transfiguration

Theophanes the Greek settled in Novgorod in 1370. In 1378, he began work on the painting of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street. The most grandiose image in the temple is the chest-to-chest image of the Savior Almighty in the dome. In addition to the dome, Theophan painted the drum with the figures of the forefathers and prophets Elijah and John the Baptist. The paintings of the apse have also reached us - fragments of the order of the saints and the “Eucharist”, part of the figure of the Mother of God on the southern altar column, and “Baptism”, “Nativity of Christ”, “Candlemas”, “Christ’s Sermon to the Apostles” and “Descent into Hell” on vaults and adjacent walls. The frescoes of the Trinity chapel are best preserved. This is an ornament, frontal figures of saints, a half-figure of the “Sign” with forthcoming angels, a throne with four saints approaching it and, in the upper part of the wall - Stylites, the Old Testament “Trinity”, medallions with John Climacus, Agathon, Akaki and the figure of Macarius of Egypt.

The subsequent events of Theophanes’ life are poorly known; according to some information (in particular, from a letter from Epiphanius the Wise to Abbot of the Athanasiev Monastery Kirill of Tverskoy), the icon painter worked in Nizhny Novgorod (the paintings have not survived), some researchers are inclined to believe that he also worked in Kolomna and Serpukhov. In the early 1390s. Feofan arrived in Moscow.

Regarding the icons painted by Theophanes, no clear information has been preserved. Traditionally, his authorship is attributed to “The Dormition of the Mother of God”, “The Don Icon of the Mother of God”, “The Transfiguration of the Lord” and the Deesis rite of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin.

There is no exact information about where and when the Assumption icon was painted, but according to indirect evidence, it is believed that this happened in Moscow. The icon is double-sided, on one side is written the plot of the Dormition of the Mother of God, and on the other is the image of the Mother of God with the Child Christ. The image belongs to the type of icon of the Mother of God “Tenderness”, and subsequently the icon received the name “Our Lady of Tenderness of the Don”. In modern art criticism there is no consensus on the origin of these images. In addition, Theophanes is credited with the icon “Transfiguration” - a temple image of the Transfiguration Cathedral in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky, although artistically and figuratively it is weaker than his images and follows his style externally and superficially.

Theophanes the Greek led the painting of a number of Moscow churches - this is the new stone Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in 1395, together with Semyon Cherny and his disciples, the Church of St. Archangel Michael in 1399, the painting of which burned out during the invasion of Tokhtamysh, and the Church of the Annunciation together with Elder Prokhor of Gorodets and Andrei Rublev in 1405. Icons of the Deesis order from the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral are also attributed to Theophanes. Its main feature is that it is the first iconostasis in Russia with full-length figures. The iconostasis consists of the following icons: “Basily the Great”, “Apostle Peter”, “Archangel Michael”, “Our Lady”, “Savior”, “John the Baptist”, “Archangel Gabriel”, “Apostle Paul”, “John Chrysostom”.

Stylite, 1374

Trinity, 1374

Savior Almighty. Painting of the dome of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street in Veliky Novgorod, 1378.

Three Stylites, 1378

Fresco of Theophanes the Greek Trinity of the Old Testament

Fresco. Forefathers Adam, Abel, Seth

Fresco Abel, 1378

Fresco Stylite Alimpius painted by Theophan the Greek in 1378 in the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin in Novgorod

Frescoes of the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street

Archangel

Don Icon of the Mother of God 1390s

Assumption, 1390s

Our Lady, 1405

Savior in power, 1405

John Chrysostom, 1405

Apostle Paul, 1405

Apostle Peter 1405

Archangel Gabriel, 1405

Basil the Great, 1405

John the Baptist, 1405

Icons of saints and ethereal powers

Prophet Gideon, 1405

School day after day - Moscow Kremlin Museums Feofan the Greek

Fully

Apostle Paul. 1405

F Eofan the Greek (around 1337 - after 1405) is one of the greatest masters of the Middle Ages. His works executed in Byzantium have not survived. All his famous works were created in Rus' and for Rus', where he lived for more than thirty years. He introduced the Russians to the highest achievements of Byzantine spiritual culture, which was experiencing one of its last ascents in his time.

Little information about Theophanes is found in the Moscow and Novgorod chronicles, but of particular value is a letter written around 1415 by the Moscow spiritual writer and artist Epiphanius the Wise to the archimandrite of the Tver Athanasiev Monastery of the Savior, Kirill. Epiphany’s message is interesting because it provides a unique opportunity to get an idea of the principles of the master’s work. In his message, he reports on the Four Gospels that he kept, illustrated by Theophan and decorated with an image of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

The description of the drawing is given in many details. “When he depicted or wrote all this, no one saw him ever look at the samples, as some of our icon painters do, who constantly peer in bewilderment, looking here and there, and do not so much paint with paints as look at the samples. He, it seemed, was painting a painting with his hands, while he constantly walked, talked with those who came and thought about the lofty and wise with his mind, but with his sensual, intelligent eyes he saw reasonable kindness. No matter how much anyone talked to him, they could not help but marvel at his mind, his allegories." parables" and its cunning structure."

From the message it is known that Theophanes, “a Greek by birth, a skilled book isographer and an excellent painter among icon painters,” painted more than 40 stone churches in Constantinople, Chalcedon, Galata, Cafe (Feodosia), as well as on Russian soil.

In the Novgorod III Chronicle, Feofan’s first work is mentioned in 1378. It talks about his painting of the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street - the only work of the master that has survived to this day, has documentary evidence and remains the main source for judging his art to this day.

The frescoes of the church have been preserved in fragments, so the system of its painting can only be partially restored. The dome of the temple depicts a half-figure of Christ Pantocrator, surrounded by archangels and seraphim. In the drum there are images of the forefathers, including Adam, Abel, Noah, Seth, Melchizedek, Enoch, the prophets Elijah, John the Baptist. On the choir in the northwestern corner chamber (Trinity Chapel) the images are better preserved. The chapel is painted with images of saints, compositions “Our Lady of the Sign with the Archangel Gabriel”, “Adoration of the Sacrifice”, “Trinity”. Feofan's style is brightly individual, characterized by expressive temperament, freedom and variety in the choice of techniques. The form is emphatically picturesque, devoid of detail, and is constructed using rich and free strokes. The muted overall tone of the painting contrasts with the bright white highlights, like flashes of lightning illuminating the stern, spiritualized faces of the saints. The contours are outlined with powerful, dynamic lines. The folds of clothing lack detailed modeling, lying wide and rigid, at sharp angles.

The master’s palette is spare and restrained, dominated by orange-brown and silver-blue, corresponding to the intense spiritual state of the images. "Theophanes's painting is a philosophical concept in color, moreover, the concept is quite harsh, far from everyday optimism. Its essence is the idea of man's global sinfulness before God, as a result of which he found himself almost hopelessly removed from him and can only await the arrival of his an uncompromising and ruthless judge, whose image looks with extreme severity at sinful humanity from under the dome of the Novgorod temple,” writes researcher of Russian medieval art V.V. Bychkov.

Theophanes the Greek creates a world full of drama and tension of the spirit. Its saints are stern, detached from everything around them, deep in the contemplation of silence - the only path to salvation. Artists in Novgorod tried to follow Feofan’s style when they painted the Church of Fyodor Stratilates on the Stream, but in general the master’s individuality turned out to be exceptional for Rus', a country far from the spiritual experience of Byzantium and looking for its own path.

After 1378, Feofan apparently worked in Nizhny Novgorod, but his paintings from this period have not reached us.

From about 1390, he was in Moscow and briefly in Kolomna, where he could paint the Assumption Cathedral, which was later completely rebuilt. Here, in the cathedral, the later famous shrine was kept - the icon “Our Lady of the Don” (on its back - “Assumption”), which was later transferred to the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (now in the State Tretyakov Gallery). Some researchers associate its performance with the work of Theophanes the Greek.

The master completed several paintings in the Moscow Kremlin: in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary with the chapel of St. Lazarus (1395), where Theophan worked together with Simeon the Black, in the Arkhangelsk (1399) and Annunciation (1405) cathedrals. He painted the latter together with Andrei Rublev and Prokhor from Gorodets. In the Kremlin, Feofan took part in the paintings of the treasury of Prince Vladimir Andreevich and the tower of Vasily I. None of these works have survived. It is possible that Theophanes the Greek participated in the creation of icons of the Deesis rank, currently located in the Annunciation Cathedral. However, as proven by recent research, this iconostasis is not the original one dating back to 1405, and the Deesis rite could have been moved here only after the devastating fire in the Kremlin that occurred in 1547.

In any case, the icons “Savior in Power”, “Our Lady”, “John the Baptist”, “Apostle Peter”, “Apostle Paul”, “Basily the Great”, “John Chrysostom” reveal such features of style and such high technical skill that allow assume here the work of a great master.

Theophan the Greek's style of icon painting (if we agree that the icons of the Deesis rite of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin were painted by Theophan) differs significantly from the fresco style. This can be explained by the specifics of icon painting. The images of the Deesis rank are impressive and monumental. Almost two-meter figures, filled with inner significance and self-absorption, form a single composition, subordinated to one plan - to embody the thanksgiving prayer of the saints to the Savior, the creator and ruler of the heavenly powers, and their intercession for the human race on the day of the Last Judgment. This idea determined the iconographic solution for the entire group as a whole, and for each image separately. The iconography of the rank has its origins in the altar paintings of Byzantine churches and is closely connected with the texts of the main prayers of the liturgy. A similar program of the Deesis rite with “The Savior is in Power” subsequently became widespread in Russian iconostases, but here it appears for the first time.

Unlike fresco painting, the images of icons are not so expressive in appearance. Their drama and sorrow seemed to go deep, revealing themselves in the soft glow of their faces and the muted colors of their clothes. Each face is clearly individual in type and expression of emotional state, almost portrait-like. The contours of the figures are calmer; the classical tradition, going back to antiquity, is more clearly visible in their design. The icons are painted masterfully, using complex and varied technical techniques that only an outstanding master can do. Among the icons supposedly associated with the name of Theophanes are “John the Baptist Angel of the Desert,” “Transfiguration” and “Four Parts” (all in the Tretyakov Gallery).