Historical geography of Russia in the 19th century. Historical geography

At the end of the 18th century. the largest share of arable land fell on the central chernozem and central non-chernozem regions, that is, the old regions with the highest population density. The share of hay and pasture lands was higher in chernozem, especially steppe, regions. During the 19th century. in the non-chernozem zone there was a widespread expansion of hayfields and pastures in relation to arable land. The increase here was due to forest clearing. In the chernozem regions, on the contrary, there was an expansion of arable areas, especially intense in the south. It was carried out, first of all, by plowing hayfields
pasture lands, as well as virgin lands.

The structure of grain production in Russia was characterized by a sharp predominance of the production of so-called gray bread (rye, oats, barley). The production of more valuable, red bread, primarily wheat, occupied a secondary place during the period under review. At the beginning of the 20th century. In the crops of these main types of grain, wheat accounted for only 26%. The structure of agricultural production in general and grain production in particular largely depends on soil and climatic conditions, which also influence the distribution of crops of individual crops in regions of the country. Therefore, more than half of all rye and oat crops in European Russia were in the central non-chernozem, central chernozem, mid-Volga and Ural regions, and over 70% of wheat crops were cultivated in the southern steppe, southeastern and pre-Caucasian regions. Among other crops, buckwheat and millet were of great importance, the crops of which were especially significant in Ukraine, the central black earth region and the middle Volga. In the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. The areas where corn is distributed are rapidly expanding. Almost all of them were located in the southern steppe, southwestern and pre-Caucasian regions.

Potatoes began to spread in Russia from the beginning of the 18th century. But only in the second quarter of the 19th century. It turned from a garden crop into a field crop, and the area it occupied began to expand rapidly. In the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. about 60% of potato crops were concentrated in the Lithuanian-Belarusian, central non-chernozem and central chernozem regions.

The most widespread industrial crops in Russia during this period were flax and hemp. The areas for their cultivation were determined in previous eras. For flax, these were, first of all, Pskov, Livland, Kovno, Vitebsk, Smolensk, Tver, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Vologda and Vyatka provinces. The regions where hemp was sown were Smolensk, Kaluga, Oryol, Chernigov, Kursk and Poltava, Tambov, Penza and Voronezh provinces.

Sunflower crops began to spread widely in the 1860s. The overwhelming majority of them were concentrated in the Voronezh, Saratov provinces and Kuban. Sugar beets began to be cultivated in Russia from the beginning of the 19th century, mainly in Ukraine and in some provinces of the black earth center. Tobacco was cultivated in all black earth provinces, but Chernigov, Poltava, Ryazan, Tambov, and the Kuban basin stood out in this regard. Central Asia was the main production area for rice and cotton. Sericulture centers were also located here and in Transcaucasia.

Cattle breeding occupied the next place after agriculture in Russian agricultural production. In the middle of the 19th century. the provision of working livestock was highest in the central chernozem, middle Volga, Ural and especially southeastern regions. These areas accounted for more than half of all horses in European Russia. The level of development of horse breeding in Western Siberia and Central Asia was significantly higher than in the European part of the country.

The supply of cattle was above average in the northern, Ural, Baltic, Lithuanian-Belarusian and southern steppe regions. In the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. The leaders in the level of development of cattle are the Caucasus, Kazakhstan and Siberia. These same areas, as well as Central Asia, also stood out in relation to sheep breeding. The Baltic states, Ukraine and Belarus were areas of highly developed pig production.

Industry structure and location

The structure of industrial production in Russia was characterized by the predominance of the manufacturing industry over the mining industry, and the manufacturing industry, in turn, was dominated by textile production. During the 18th century. The leading branch of the textile industry was linen, and at the end of the 18th and the first decades of the 19th century. - cloth and wool.

At the beginning of the 18th century, when the intensive development of manufacturing began, its main center was Moscow and the adjacent counties and provinces, where textile production was concentrated. The overwhelming majority of the textile manufactories that emerged were located in this area. Other manufacturing industries also developed here, in particular leather and glass. In the central () region at the beginning of the 18th century. a significant share of the metallurgical industry was also located. In addition to the old, pre-Petrine factories, several new ones were built. The Moscow region was also a center of metalworking and weapons production. The Tula Arms Factory was built here, which played an important role in the history of arms manufacturing in Russia.

During the Petrine era, two new areas of concentration of industrial production arose, the importance of which quickly grew. These were the St. Petersburg province and the Southern Urals. The peculiarity of the industry of St. Petersburg was that its initial goal was to satisfy the needs of the army, the royal court and the highest nobility. The largest industrial enterprises of the capital in the Peter the Great era were the Admiralty and the Foundry Business and Cannon Yard (Arsenal), which specialized in the manufacture of weapons, respectively. Another branch of the St. Petersburg industry was textile: linen, sailing and cloth production (for the needs of the army), as well as silk and tapestry manufactories. In the first half of the 19th century, in connection with the transition of industry from manufactory to factory, such an industry as mechanical engineering emerged. By the middle of the century, more than 70% of the workers in this industry were concentrated in St. Petersburg. Other centers - Moscow and the cities of the Eastern Baltic states - were of much less importance. In 1701, the Nevyansk plant was founded - the first Ural metallurgical plant. In the first half of the 18th century. after him, several more factories were built, and by the 1720s. The Urals began to provide more than half of the metal produced in the country. The Urals retained its leading role until the 80s. XIX century The three indicated regions (central, St. Petersburg and Ural) were leading in industrial production during the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries. The vast majority of products from all major industries were produced here.

Textile production was concentrated in the central non-chernozem region. At the beginning of the 19th century. Most of the linen manufactories were located in Kostroma, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kaluga and Moscow provinces. In the cloth and wool industry at this time, 70% of the production was provided by five provinces: Moscow, Kursk, Tambov, Kazan and Simbirsk. The cotton and paper industry was located mainly in the Moscow and Vladimir provinces, as well as in St. Petersburg.

In the 18th century The sugar industry in Russia was based on the processing of imported cane raw materials. This determined its placement. By the beginning of the 19th century. almost three-quarters of the sugar produced was supplied by the St. Petersburg and Livonia provinces. At this time, the production of sugar from beets began, which was initially based in the central black earth and some non-black earth provinces. Since the 1830s sugar production moves to the southern provinces of the black earth center and to.

Among other industries, it is worth mentioning distillation, which has received significant development in the Baltic states, Ukraine, and in the black earth center. Initially, grain was used to produce alcohol, and from the 19th century. Potatoes also became widely used for this purpose.

This was the location of the main branches of large-scale industrial production. It is easy to notice that the greatest concentration of manufacturing industries was in the central non-chernozem and northwestern regions: mainly in the Moscow, Vladimir and St. Petersburg provinces. Unlike large-scale industry, small-scale industry was distributed much more evenly. Some branches of handicraft and small-scale handicraft production were present everywhere. However, even here the central non-chernozem region stood out, where small-scale textile production, handicraft metalworking and ceramic (pottery) industry, leather processing and other crafts and trades developed. The east of the non-chernozem center, and the Northern Urals (Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan and Vyatka provinces) were an area of ​​​​wide development of woodworking. For example, in the Semenovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province, up to 3 million spoons were produced per year, which were distributed throughout the country. Here, forestry industries were widespread (production of tar and resin, bast, wheels, arcs, etc.). In the Middle Region, the manufacture of sheepskin, leather and the manufacture of products from them was widespread. In and around the Volga region, small-scale industry specialized in processing wool, which came in significant quantities from Kazakhstan. In Transcaucasia, handicraft production of jewelry, weapons, carpets, silk and other fabrics was preserved. Leather and wool processing, the production of sheepskin coats and shoes, as well as woodworking were widespread in Siberia.

In the post-reform period, at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, significant changes occurred in Russian industry and its location. This was the time of the completion of the industrial revolution, which was reflected in the replacement of manual labor with machines and the transition from manufactory to factory. It came out on top in terms of production volume, pushing textiles to second. Metalworking and mechanical engineering were significantly inferior to the leading industries in terms of share.

Although the main fuel in Russia was firewood (even at the beginning of the twentieth century it covered more than half of the fuel demand), during this period the extraction of mineral fuels - coal and oil - began to develop. Back in the times of Peter the Great, coal deposits were discovered on the Don, in the Moscow and Kuznetsk basins. However, their industrial development actually began only after the reforms of the 1860s. This was facilitated by the actively developing railway construction at the same time. The vast majority of coal came from the Donetsk basin. In Siberia, the push for coal mining began in the early 1900s. was the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. At the beginning of the twentieth century. coal accounted for approximately three-quarters of the total mineral fuel. The rest came from oil, the production of which was almost entirely concentrated in the Caucasus: in the Baku and Grozny regions. Production in other places was negligible, and the Ural-Volga deposits, closest to the main industrial regions of the country, were not developed at all.

In the metallurgical industry until the 90s. XIX century The dominant position was occupied by the Urals, followed by the central region. Railway construction and the development of coal deposits in Donbass led to the rapid growth of ferrous metallurgy in the south. TO end of the 19th century V. In Yekaterinoslav, Taganrog and other Azov regions, almost two dozen metallurgical plants were already operating and this region became the main producer of cast iron, iron and steel.

Transport

In the transport system of the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries. Inland waterways played the main role, although of all types of transport this was perhaps most dependent on physical and geographical conditions. In a country like Russia, river transport is seasonal due to freezing of rivers. It is largely influenced by the water regime (speed of the current, rapids, floods and shallow water), which determines the size and tonnage of ships. Until the 18th century The portage system dominated river navigation in Russia. Naturally, at this time small vessels with a small carrying capacity predominated. Since the 18th century Canals begin to be built, a significant part of which ran along the ancient portage routes between the rivers. The first was the Vyshnevolotsk canal system, built in 1703–1708. A canal was dug between the Tvertsa and Msta rivers and a system of locks was created, which made it possible to connect St. Petersburg (through the lake basin) with the Volga. In 1718–1731 a bypass canal was laid along shallow Lake Ladoga from the mouth of the Volkhov to the Neva. Under Peter, an attempt was made to build a canal connecting the Volga with the Don through a Don tributary - the Ilovlya River. This project was not implemented, but traces of unfinished construction have been preserved to this day in the Volgograd region in the area of ​​​​the city with the characteristic name Petrov Val.

In the first half of the 19th century. Several more canals were built to connect the river systems of European Russia. Another system arose that connected St. Petersburg with the Volga - the Mariinskaya (in 1799–1810). Its route ran from the Volga along Sheksna, White Lake, through the canal, Svir, and along the Neva. In 1804, the Ogninsk system was completed, connecting the Dnieper through Pripyat with the Neman. Around the same time, the Berezina system was built, connecting the Dnieper with the Western Dvina (via a canal between the Berezina and one of the Dvina's tributaries). In 1818–1825 Canals were created to bypass the White and Onega lakes, and in 1824–1829. The Neman was connected to the Vistula. In 1825–1828 To deliver oak timber to Arkhangelsk, Sheksna was connected to Sukhona. With the emergence of connecting systems, the throughput of river navigation has increased, and the size and carrying capacity of vessels have increased. Development since the second quarter of the 19th century. The shipping company required improvement of the fairways, in connection with which structures began to be created to regulate the water regime and dredging work was carried out.

In this era, along with water transport, horse-drawn transport played an important role. According to the calculations of contemporaries, it played a role in transporting the main cargo - agricultural products - in the middle of the 19th century. the same role as water transport. About 800 thousand people were employed in horse-drawn grain transportation in the summer, and up to 3 million people in the winter. In areas poor or lacking waterways, such as Central Asia and the Caucasus, horse-drawn transportation was the main form of transport of goods. Their technique was quite primitive. In Russia until 1817 there were no highways, that is, roads with hard surfaces. Dirt roads were out of service for long periods of time (during spring and autumn thaw). Since the late 1810s. The construction of highways began, primarily in the non-black earth center and in the north-west, and by 1861 their length was only about 10 thousand versts.

In the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. the structure of transport has changed significantly. Its main type was railways, and water transport faded into the background. The first Tsarskoye Selo railway in Russia was built in 1836–1838. The final station was to be the city of Pavlovsk, and Tsarskoe Selo was to be an intermediate station. The movement was opened already in 1837 between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo. At first, steam-powered trains ran only on Sundays, and horse-drawn trains on other days. Only in 1838, when the road was completed to the final station, all traffic switched to steam traction. In 1843–1851 The Nikolaevskaya railway was built, connecting Moscow and through Tver and Vyshny Volochok. The construction of this road stimulated the development of domestic transport engineering (locomotive and carriage building), as well as metal production.

Intensive development of railway construction began in the late 60s and early 70s. XIX century, after the abolition of serfdom and a number of liberal reforms. In 1864–1873, 12.5 thousand km of railways were built. At this time, in particular, the Moscow-Kursk, Ryazan-Voronezh and Tambov-Saratov roads began to function, which ensured the export of grain from and from the southeast of the country to the center and northwest. For the development of the coal and metallurgical industry of Donbass, great
The construction of the Kursk-Kharkov-Taganrog highway was important. In order to strengthen economic ties with and from the western regions of the country, the Moscow-Smolensk-Minsk-Brest road was built.

In the period from 1876 to 1892, the Chusovskaya - and Chusovskaya - Saltworks railways were built, which played a large role in the industrial development of the Urals. To export grain from the European part of the country to the ports, several railways were built: Tsaritsyn - Orel - Vitebsk - Riga, Tsaritsyn - Tikhoretskaya - Novorossiysk, Romny - Libava, Kharkov - Odessa and Kharkov - Nikolaev. The line Moscow - Yaroslavl - Vologda - Arkhangelsk was also important.

The second railway boom occurred in 1894–1903, when more than 25 thousand km of railways came into operation. In total, the length of the Russian railway network by 1917 was almost 78 thousand km, and more than 15 thousand km were under construction. The country's largest railway junction was Moscow, from which roads ran in all directions. There were also lines that connected the outskirts, bypassing Moscow, for example Riga - Tsaritsyn, Kiev - Koenigsberg (in 1904–1905 the peninsula, Port Arthur and the southern section of the CER were lost. Soon a connecting line was built between Chita and Khabarovsk along Russian territory to north of the Amur.

It should be noted that the railway network was distributed unevenly throughout the country. If the center and south of the European part were at the beginning of the twentieth century. covered by a significant number of roads, the north, southeast and east experienced a clear shortage of railway tracks. Only the Trans-Siberian Railway passed through Western, Eastern Siberia and the Far East; Kazakhstan and Central Asia were served by the Orenburg - Tashkent - Ursatievskaya and Krasnovodsk - Ursatievskaya roads. This is due to the fact that roads were built primarily to connect the most important economic regions and centers, so the relatively underdeveloped economically north, Lower Volga region, Caucasus, Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Siberia and the Far East turned out to be poorer in terms of railways. than the western and central provinces. At the beginning of the twentieth century. The government began to increasingly create roads for military-strategic purposes, but they, as a rule, were located towards the western borders of the empire.

E.G. Istomina. Communication routes in Russia in the 17th - early 19th centuries.

In the development of the transport system in the vast Eurasian space of Russia, the natural environment played a special role. In the 17th century In it, a special place was occupied by lake-river communications - waterways and portages, which were a factor and condition for the development of social production, material and spiritual culture. The density of both water and land roads, their distribution throughout the country, reflected the historical sequence of settlement, location of production and a number of other economic, geographical and political factors that form the basis for the development of Russian statehood. Natural conditions largely determined the pattern of rapid and, conversely, slow development of individual links of communication routes. A well-known engineer who did a lot in the field of reconstruction of communications in Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries. A.A. Betancourt wrote: “...No state in the world is endowed by nature with so many conveniences for all kinds of communications as Russia: many rivers and streams flowing in all its directions; vast forests, countless lakes and reservoirs, boundless plains, all this promises abundance and convenience in communications that it would be in vain to look for in India” 1.

After the formation of the Russian centralized state, a process began to strengthen connections between existing water and land roads. Water transport, due to its accessibility, comprehensiveness and other natural technical and economic advantages, made it possible to create a basis for regular (albeit seasonal) transport and economic interaction between regions remote from each other by many hundreds of kilometers, remaining dominant not only in the early stages of history Russian state, but also throughout the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. However, the water transport network of the vast territory of the country could not be fully operated without horse-drawn roads, the mobility of the configuration (change and emergence of new directions) of which was a necessary condition for the process of territorial division of labor. Dirt roads, involving masses of agricultural and industrial products in commodity circulation, ensured their transportation to many market centers, fairs, and marinas. They played a significant role in the implementation of various military operations, organizational and administrative connections between cities and other populated areas, and facilitated transit traffic between the internal regions of European Russia and Siberia.
The entire network of horse-drawn roads was a complex system of intertwined meridional and latitudinal connections. However, the saturation of the transport network in different regions of the country was not equal. Ancient, traditional routes tended to lengthen, moving towards newly developed areas, enriched with branches and new routes. However, by the end of the 17th century, many roads were forgotten and abandoned due to a variety of reasons, often associated with the emergence of new cities, serif lines, and changing priorities in trade relations.
The most important connecting node of communications in the 17th century. was Moscow. Being the center of the emerging all-Russian market, it had water and land routes going both in the direction of the nearest regions and to distant regions of the country. The land roads that diverged radially from Moscow had links, thanks to which not only a certain district was served, but also the possibility of crossing one road to another. An almost continuous network of land roads was created. They were adjacent to waterways, the importance of which was great, especially for the center and northern part of European Russia. These routes covered Zamoskovnye cities, Pomorie, cities from the “German” and “Lithuanian” Ukraine 2.

Transport services for Moscow and its connections with nearby and remote areas took place, first of all, along the following main roads 3. From the Rogozhskaya outpost to the east there was a road to Vladimir-on-Klyazma - “Vladimirka”; Another road to Vladimir - “Stromynka” passed slightly to the north - through Stromyn on the Dubenka River, to Kirzhach and further to Vladimir. The road to Pereslavl-Zalessky (“Pereslavka” - Yaroslavskaya) began from the village of Krasnoye (later the area of ​​Krasnoselskaya Street) and continued to Yaroslavl. In the northern direction, another road was used - through Khlebnikovo and the village of Troitsa-Seltsy, it led through Dmitrov and Kashin to Bezhetsky Verkh. The ancient route connecting Moscow with Novgorod began from the Tverskaya Zastava and went to Klin and Tver. The Volotsk road from Dorogomilov headed to Volok Damskoye (later Volokolamskoye Highway). The road to Mozhaisk, Vyazma and further to the Smolensk land ran through the Vyazemsky pit on the Vyazema River. Borovskaya road - to the Borovsko-Pafnutiev monastery went through a pit near the village of Fominskoye.

Four roads led south from Moscow. The main one was Serpukhovskaya. Through Tula, Orel, Kursk, Belgorod, they reached Sloboda Ukraine. “Serpukhovka” was also known as Crimean, since it was the shortest in this direction. The Kashirskaya road went through Ryazan to the Don. To travel to the Ryazan lands, they used two more roads - through Kolomna. From one of them - Brashevskaya there was a branch to Kasimov - through the Yegoryevsky churchyard of the Vysotsk volost (the future city of Yegoryevsk). All of these roads connected Moscow with important transport hubs, trade, craft and administrative centers of the Russian state - Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Kolomna, Serpukhov, Ryazan, Tula, Kaluga, Volokolamsk, Mozhaisk, Tver and Dmitrov.

The radial arrangement of roads leading from Moscow through economically, administratively and militarily important cities ensured in the 17th century. the formation of peculiar nodes of land roads. They were, on the one hand, the center of the local district, from where horse-drawn tracks of varying importance went, and on the other hand, they connected neighboring highways coming from Moscow. Naturally, between the most important roads there remained significant spaces, populated to varying degrees and playing a certain role in the socio-economic life of the country. These areas gradually developed their own local centers and nodes of land roads, connected with neighboring settlements and transshipment points 4 .
All roads leading from Moscow created stable connections with remote areas of the country. Thus, the Yaroslavl road continued further to Vologda, Ustyug Veliky, Kholmogory and Arkhangelsk. On a significant route from Vologda to Arkhangelsk, it duplicated the Sukhon-Dvina water main, which was used only at certain times of the year. The Vladimir road headed to Nizhny Novgorod, thus leading to the Volga. The Serpukhov road had a connection with one of the most important southern roads - Muravsky, along which Tatar detachments back in the 16th century. carried out their numerous raids on Russian settlements. The road went from the Crimean Isthmus (from Perekop), along the watershed, first between the Dnieper and Donets, then between the Oka and Don and abutted on the Oka near Serpukhov. It had several branches - the Romodanovsky (Ramadanovsky) Way headed to the west. At Oskol, a road branched off from Muravsky Way towards Orel and Volkhov - Pafnuttsev Way. The Muravsky Way had a connection with the Izyumsky Way, which crossed the Donets, with the Kalmius and Novo-Kalmius sakmas, going to the coast Sea of ​​Azov. Along the watersheds of the right tributaries of the Don and the left tributaries of the Donets, the left tributaries of the Don and the right Khopra and Oka - along the left bank of the Tsna (to Shatsk) the Nogai road passed. It had branches to Ryazan, Kolomna and other cities 5. Southern land roads in the 17th century. relatively rarely went beyond the fortified lines - Belgorod and Izyum. There were few roads east of the Tsarev-Borisov-Valuiki-Voronezh-Tambov-Morshansk line. However, the settlement and development of the southern regions of the Russian state was accompanied by the intensive development of land roads, since there were no large navigable rivers in this territory that could provide convenient transport links.

By the middle of the 17th century. Most of the former roads that served for Tatar raids and migrations turned into busy trade routes: Livny - Bogodukhov - Perekop, Muravsky, Romodanovsky, Pafnutyev, Bakaev, Cherny Shlyakhi, Kalmiusskaya Sakma, etc. Most of these roads connected the southwestern part of the Russian state with inland counties. Also D.I. Bagalei noted that, as a rule, they walked along watersheds, “between the tops of rivers and ravines, everywhere along flat and elevated ridges... Carts with heavy trucks even today (19th century - Author) mostly travel along these roads in consideration of their level and non-mountainous position" 6 .

At the end of the 17th century. traffic on the ancient southern roads revived: Kyiv-Constantinople (via Bendery and the Budzhak steppe), Kyiv-Smolensk-Warsaw, Sumy-Perekop-Crimea 7 .
A wide network of roads existed in the north-west in the 17th century. Documentedly restored by I.A. Golubtsov on the basis of “Extracts from the Novgorod Exile Books” (compiled in 1700-1703), it was presented in basic terms as follows 8. The main transport hub of the North-West was Novgorod, from which roads diverged in all directions, covering the space of the Novgorod Pyatina (with the exception of Bezhetskaya), as well as significant parts of the adjacent counties - Pskov, Velikolutsky, Toropetsky, Rzhevsky, Novotorzhsky, with exit beyond the outlined territory in the most important directions to Yuryev Livonsky, Polotsk, Smolensk, Tver, Moscow, to Gorodetsk (Bezhetsky Verkh), Uglich, Kashin, Pereyaslavl Zalessky, Suzdal, Vladimir, to the Solovetsky Monastery (Obonezhskaya Pyatina to the White Sea), Lop Pogosts (north-eastern part of the future Karelia) and some other points.

Among all the designated roads, the first named is Moskovskaya - from Novgorod to the border of the Novgorod volosts - to Vydropusksky Yam and Torzhok; then there were land roads to Pskov, Ivan-gorod, Yam-gorod, Koporye, Oreshk and Tikhvin. By water - the Luga River, the Rosona channel and the Narova River, Novgorod was connected to Yam-gorod and Ivan-gorod. The water and land roads to Staraya Russa, between Pskov and Moscow, are marked. From Novgorod to Moscow there was a waterway known as the “Seregersky” - from Lake Ilmen by the rivers Polaya, Yavonya, Lake Seliger, the Selizharovka River, the Volga to the mouth of Shosha and from there to Moscow.

I.A. Golubtsov could not recognize this “Extract” as a “road worker”, since it lacked a number of communication routes that undoubtedly existed at that time. The painting, for example, does not indicate the parts of the chronicle “route from the Varangians to the Greeks” that passed through the Novgorod lands; the water roads along the Neva and Lovat are not named; Volkhov is not designated as a route to the Neva. Obviously, according to I.A. Golubtsov, “we are dealing with some conscious selection of routes, namely the selection of strategically important roads leading to the border, to the frontier” 9. During the period of Russia's struggle with Poland and Sweden for the Baltic states, knowledge about roads in the rear of the territory that was the object of claims was important. “Road Painting” is a very valuable historical and geographical source that reveals the most important communications of the North-West for a certain period and in a certain geopolitical situation. It also indicates that in the 17th century. the main radii of the Novgorod road junction became Yamsk roads, i.e., part of the national communication system. Only three roads were described without indicating the holes - to the White Sea, to the Lop Pogosts and to Gdov. On the rest they already exist or are listed as under construction 10 .

In the 17th century land roads were constantly used in combination with water roads. In winter, goods were often accumulated in warehouses near river piers in order to be transported along rivers in the summer. Horse-drawn roads were often backup to water roads, along which the most intensive navigation was carried out during the spring rise of water. In winter, frozen rivers were used as convenient sled tracks (winter roads). Goods were delivered along them at a faster rate than in summer along dirt roads. But winter roads did not always save the situation - deep snow, drifts, and icy conditions often made them insurmountable. Thus, along the entire bank of the Volga from Nizhny Novgorod to Astrakhan, a horse-drawn route (Embassy Road) was widely used, passing through Vasilsursk, Cheboksary, Sviyazhsk (with a branch to Kazan), through Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn. The government (primarily the Yamsk order, created in the 16th century and in charge of the Yamsk chase) paid attention to the main post roads, the operation of which was especially important in the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries. (Moscow-Riga-Warsaw; Moscow-Mogilev; Moscow-Arkhangelsk; Moscow-Astrakhan; Moscow-Voronezh; Moscow-Kiev-Belaya Tserkov; Moscow-Kursk-Sumy; Voronezh-Kursk; Yaroslavl-Tver-Vyazma) 11.

The network of these roads also reflected the government’s concern for organizing stable relations between the center and the periphery, and the development of local and all-Russian markets. With large roads running towards the cities of the southern, eastern and northeastern regions, trade and craft villages began to develop rapidly, which was facilitated by the strengthening of public communication ties, the growth of productive forces and commodity circulation.
During the period of development of market relations, the implementation of strategic plans related to the development of new territories, speed, reliability and safety of cargo came first in transport services to the state, economy and population. However, Russian horse-drawn transport could not provide these qualities. His condition was characterized by extreme technical backwardness. The main means of transportation in winter are various types of sleighs (travelling and cargo), in spring-summer and autumn - wheeled transport (carts, drogs, tarantasses, chaises, rulers, etc.) and for the removal of bulky cargo - drags (skids, wheeled and etc.). The main draft force is horses, and in the southern regions - often oxen. The capacity of roads largely depended on the topography, soil composition, weather conditions, and obstacles in the form of rivers, streams and swamps. The in-kind road tax did little to help maintain the roads in a relatively satisfactory condition 12.

However, in the conditions of the feudal-serf system, characterized by a backward technical and economic base, water transport played a special role, and in comparison with horse-drawn transport it could be used with the greatest efficiency 13 . Throughout the 17th century, the share of water transport as one of the branches of social production in the country's economy steadily increased. The evolution of waterways was particularly influenced by the territorial division of labor, which manifested itself in the territorial organization of trade, the volume and composition of cargo flows. The Russian state had an extensive hydrographic network, the transport basis of which in the European part of the country was the Volga-Kama basin. Long before the Volga with all its tributaries became part of the Russian state, the Volga route was of particular importance for ancient Russian trade and migrations. “According to eastern sources, we clearly trace the process of Russian colonization on the Volga, which from time immemorial made this river, despite the fact that non-Slavic peoples lived on its banks in the middle and lower reaches, a “Russian river”, a “mother” 14, wrote researcher of international Volga-Caspian relations B.N. Zakhoder. In the 17th century, after the Time of Troubles, the economic importance of the Volga continued to grow. The extensive network of the Volga (Volga-Kama) water transport basin included not only the Volga itself, the largest European river (according to the 19th century - 3350 versts), but also such significant navigable rafting rivers as the Oka (with Moksha, Tsna, Moscow and etc.), Sura, Tvertsa, Sheksna, Kostroma, Vetluga, Kama (with Vyatka, Belaya, Chusova, etc.). At the beginning of the 18th century. The Volga had a connection with the Baltic Sea (through the portage, and since 1709 - through canals), through the portage and with the Azov Sea. For transport purposes, about 40 rivers were used in the Volga basin, covering about two dozen provinces as waterways of communication 15. The waterways of the Volga-Kama basin crossed the most important horse-drawn roads running from the center of the European part of Russia to the North, North-East, Siberia, the Caspian lands, which already in the 17th century. significantly increased the possibilities of transporting goods by water transport in comparison with horse-drawn transport.

Through portages and access horse-drawn roads, the Volga Waterway was closely connected with the Sukhona and Northern Dvina - the most important northern communications leading Russian cargo to the main sea gate of the country, which remained the case in the 17th century. pier at the mouth of the Northern Dvina - the city of Arkhangelsk. The main partner in the widespread use of sea routes was England. However, the trade of the English company in Moscow at the beginning of the 17th century. was heading towards decline. In 1602, she equipped only two ships with goods to Russia. But England's position on the White Sea was stronger than that of the British's main competitors, the Dutch. Five piers were assigned to the members of the company (in Korelsky Ustye, on Pechenga, Varzuga, Mezen and Shunga), while only two were assigned to the Dutch - on Kola and at the Pudozhsky estuary of the Northern Dvina. French ships also had the right to land on Kola 16. The merchants of Veliky Ustyug, Solvychegodsk, and Kholmogory had strong connections with foreign countries through the Arkhangelsk port. In the middle of the 17th century. in the port city there were already 23 foreign yards and 21 barns, spinning and rope factories, 10 forges and 2 mills. At this time, from 30 to 40 foreign ships came to Arkhangelsk annually. The Arkhangelsk North sent timber, resin, hemp, bread, fish, and hunting products to Western Europe 17 .

The Volga waterway was important not only for maritime trade in the North. He played a huge role in the colonization of the Ponizovye Volga region. Intense movement along the Volga emerged only after the liquidation of active manifestations of the Time of Troubles in the mid-30s of the 17th century, and especially after the construction of the eastern part of a single fortified line - the Simbirsk-Korsun and Zakamsk lines (1640-1650s). During this period, the development of the southern and southeastern outskirts of Russia (the “Wild Field”) intensified, marking the beginning of the emergence of a large area of ​​permanent rural settlement. Improving the security of a vast territory laid the foundations for the unhindered transit of goods along the Volga, increasing cargo flows that were the result of trade through Astrakhan and the Caspian Sea with Iran, Transcaucasia and Central Asia. The period from the mid-1690s was decisive for the entire lower Volga. The capture of Azov, construction work in the Volga-Don interfluve, the virtual liquidation of the autonomy of the Yaik and Don Cossacks, accelerated agricultural development and the final design of the palace fishing complex, turned the Volga waterway into the main road of a vast territory and the most important communication linking Russia with the foreign East 18.

The Volga was a necessary link in the system of trade relations with the North Caucasus. The volume of land transportation from the piers of Astrakhan began to grow rapidly in the first half of the 18th century. Particular preference was given to the road through Kizlyar (founded in 1735), which became a major center of trade with Dagestan, Chechnya, Kabarda and North Ossetia and a transshipment point for trade with Transcaucasia and Iran. Through it and further to the Volga, cotton paper and cotton fabrics, raw silk, scrap copper, etc. were transported from Azerbaijan and Iran. The sea route from Astrakhan to the East ran along the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (with stops for Russian ships in the ports of Derbent, Baku, Zyanzeli, Lankaran and Astrabad) 19.

The Volga waterway supplied goods that supported Central Asian trade. Two trade routes led from Astrakhan to Central Asia, the first of which was through the Caspian Sea to the eastern coast, to the “Karagan piers” on the Mangyshlak peninsula, then through the steppe to Khiva and Bukhara. The second route passed overland - through the Volga region fortress Krasny Yar, Guryev, then along the Khiva caravan road to Urgench, Khiva and Bukhara. In the 17th century and up to the 20s. XVIII century trading people used the first route. The operation of these roads was often interrupted due to the difficult military-political situation and the increased danger of travel, especially reviving only in the second half of the 18th century. 20
During the XVI-XVII centuries. the main routes of movement in Siberia were formed. They were often laid by industrialists, assisting military expeditions equipped to explore new lands and collect yasak. They were the first to discover the lower reaches of the great Siberian rivers and coastal routes along the coast of the Arctic Ocean. The bulk of Siberian communication routes were along the waterways - the Ob, Yenisei, Lena and their tributaries. One of the oldest routes from European Russia was an industrial water road (officially existed until 1620), starting from Veliky Ustyug. Along the Northern Dvina it went to the White Sea, then along the coast it headed east, skirting the Kanin Peninsula, past Cape Russky Zavorot at Pechora Bay, then through the Yugorsky Shar Strait, along the Yugra Peninsula past Baydaratskaya Bay, and approached the Yamal Peninsula. Further advancement took place along a system of rivers and portages, with access to the Gulf of Ob. From here it was possible, turning east, to come to Tazovskaya iy6e and then enter the Taz River and sail to the city of Mangazeya (founded in 1601). Another official route (until 1704) was the Pechora “Cross-Stone Path”. There were two roads leading to Pechora - Dvinsko-Mezensko-Pechora and Vychegda 21. From Pechora a system of rivers and portages led to the Ob. For communication with Siberia, they used the Kama tributary Vishera, as well as the Lozva and Tavda rivers. However, progress in this direction was associated with a lot of time. In the 70-80s. XVII century a new, shorter route to the Siberian lands was opened - the Babinovskaya land road on the river. Turu, and in the place where the waterway began, the city of Verkhoturye appeared on the site of a fort that existed since 1598. The settlement of Irbit played a special role in the transportation of goods in Verkhoturye district; by the end of the 17th century. which became the main point of purchase of goods going to Siberia. The Verkhoturye route existed as an official road until 1763. In 1601, the city of Turinsk also arose on Tour, which quickly turned into a Russian pit on the road between Verkhoturye and Tyumen. From Verkhoturye, industrialists carried grain and other food and industrial goods to the most important Siberian city of Tobolsk 22 on state-owned ships (planks - 8 fathoms long with a large sail), intended for “service people” and weapons.

In the 30-50s of the 17th century. Intensive colonization of Eastern Siberia began, which led to the emergence of new water-land roads - exit from the Yenisei to the Upper Tunguska (Angara) and further along it to the Il River, then the Lena portage, the Kuta River to the Lena. Sailing along the Tunguska and Ilim from Yeniseisk to the Lensky portage took 61 days 23. The Angara and the upper reaches of the Lena, adjacent to Lake Baikal, formed the Baikal road junction. In the second half of the 17th century. Transbaikalia was rapidly developing. Along the Selenga and Uda rivers, by portage, then along the Ingoda and Shilka rivers we reached the Amur 24.

Water-land transport network of Russia in the 17th century. in administrative and economic terms it did not represent a single whole. Despite the fact that all transportation necessary not only for the implementation of many economic and military-strategic plans, but also for the movement of the population over significant distances, was entrusted to the communication routes, the government did not find it possible to create an institution that would be in charge of the country’s entire transport infrastructure . The basic principles of organizing travel on roads were only broadly reflected in the Council Code of 1649.

Chapter IX (“On tolls and transportation. And on bridges”) primarily examined the norms of financial and administrative law, as well as related civil and criminal law norms that reflected the changes that took place in the economic life of the country in the 17th century. The process of the formation of the all-Russian market, the rapid growth of trade, the development of shipping, the emergence of new cities had a very noticeable impact on the two main categories of road duties - state (“sovereign”) and patrimonial and local, levied on specific sections of roads passing through the royal, patrimonial and local lands 25. In connection with the development of trade, all kinds of internal taxes become a serious obstacle to economic development, due to which the state is taking measures to limit them to some extent. We are talking about three main types of duties: washing, transportation, bridging. However, it was not just merchants who were exempt from duties, but feudal lords and the people dependent on them. The votchinniki and landowners who collected “mostovshchina” and “transportation” on their lands were obliged to justify the intended purpose of these funds. Responsibility for the proper maintenance of the sovereign's bridges and transportation was assigned to the relevant officials and tax farmers. Articles 14-15 ch. IX defined the legal regime of roads in two ways. On the one hand, the right of passage along roads passing through votchinas and estates was granted as an easement right; on the other hand, the law considered the territory of the roads as not belonging to the owner of the surrounding lands, but providing for the possibility of plowing the road to the land of the patrimonial owner or landowner. The law also opposed the abuses of waterway owners - punishment for obstacles to shipping (construction of mill dams, dams, fishing holes without passage for ships) 26 .

The evolution of both water and horse-drawn roads, which means improving quality, developing new sections of rivers and land, and reducing portages in a number of places, was under the control of the state (local and, less often, central authorities) only sporadically.
The 18th century, due to significant changes in the geopolitical and socio-economic situation in the country, changed a lot in the development of the transport network and the formation of its infrastructure. Russia's access to the Baltic Sea, the construction of St. Petersburg, which turned into the capital, the transfer of the center of gravity of foreign trade from Arkhangelsk to the Baltic - all this pushed the government to revise the entire communications system. The first thing that became part of the transformation practice was the construction of hydraulic structures necessary for the improvement of river routes leading to the sea coasts. Already in the first quarter of the 18th century. Attempts are being made to connect the Volga with the Don, the Volga-Moscow canal project is on the agenda, and a plan to connect the rivers of the Volga basin with the Volkhov and Neva is being practically implemented. Horse-drawn roads could not create reliable transport links with the interior of the country: transportation was expensive, and cargo was delivered slowly. The personal participation of Peter I in finding the possibility of improving waterways and adjusting their directions made it possible to quickly build a hydraulic complex in the Vyshny Volochok area - the Tveretskaya canal (between the Tvertsa River, which belongs to the Volga Basin, and the Tsnoi River, a river in the Baltic Basin). The year 1709 was the first stage in the creation of the largest artificial water system in Russia - the Vyshnevolotskaya, through which many hundreds of ships with cargo for export, construction, military needs and food passed annually to St. Petersburg. In 1718, construction of a canal (104 versts) began to bypass Lake Ladoga (dangerous during stormy winds), but it was completed only in 1730. After the death of Peter and until the 60s. XVIII century no practical measures were taken to improve waterways (with the exception of the construction of a sea canal and docks in Kronstadt) 27 .

However, the development of internal exchange, the strengthening of all-Russian ties, the rapid growth of foreign trade, as well as the government’s concerns about meeting the material and technical needs of government construction, industrial enterprises and the armed forces have raised the problem of radical transformations of waterways even more acutely than before. As before, the primary problem was the reconstruction of the communications routes of the North-West - both the imperfect hydraulic structures of the Vyshnevolotsk waterway, and the construction of new artificial systems based on the ancient water-land roads that went from the Volga to the Baltic. Among them, the water-carrying route, which began on the Volga tributary Sheksna and went through White Lake, the Kovzha River, where the section connected to the Volga basin ended, turned out to be especially promising. Next there was a horse-drawn route of 40 versts to the Vyanginskaya pier on the Vytegra River, which flows into Lake Onega. Along this route, heading to St. Petersburg, we still had to cross the Svir River, connecting Lake Onega with Lake Ladoga. The creation of the entire complex of hydraulic structures (connecting and bypass - canals around the lakes) began in the 1760s. The work was completed by 1810, when the first cargo ships sailed along the Mariinsky water system, named after Empress Maria Feodorovna. The new water system, unlike the Vyshnevolotsk one, allowed movement in both directions and soon became the most important part of the waterways
Russia. The composition of cargo traveling along it was unusually wide and covered a vast territory of the North-West, the Volga and Kama provinces. Of particular importance in the development of trade were cargoes that became possible to send from St. Petersburg into the country. Thus, in 1812 (in the third navigation after the start of operation of the water system), cargo traveling from the capital to the inland provinces was valued at more than 3.5 million rubles 28 .
In parallel with the creation of the Mariinsky water system, survey and construction work was going on along another water-land route leading from the Volga to the North-West - the Mologa-Somina-Tikhvinka-Syas river system. Compared to the Mariinsky water system, it was shallower and abounded in places difficult for navigation. Nevertheless, its opening in 1811, after the completion of the Tikhvin Canal, helped improve connections between St. Petersburg and the surrounding areas, from where building materials, timber and many other necessary goods were supplied to the capital. The Tikhvin waterway also made it possible to increase the flow of imported, especially food, cargo (sugar, tea, coffee, overseas fruits, almonds, spices, wines, etc.) to the internal provinces. Among industrial goods, metals and products made from them (factory equipment, various tools, spinning machines, etc.) occupied a special place. In the first years of operation of the route, the value of imports usually did not exceed 2 million rubles. 29

Waterways of the North-West in the 18th century. were the most powerful part of the transport network of European Russia. Here, in addition to the through artificial waterways that worked with a huge load, individual rivers flowing through the St. Petersburg, Novgorod and partly Tver provinces were widely used. On the Vyshnevolotsk waterway there was a concentration of all cargo flows coming from the interior regions to St. Petersburg. The cargo transportation route developed in such a way that it covered not only the Volga provinces, but also the most important Urals in terms of the use of raw materials. Cargoes from the Central Industrial and partly Central Agricultural (Oryol and Tula provinces) regions followed the same route, and occasionally cargo from the Smolensk province also arrived here. The Vyshnevolotsk waterway was the main highway along which grain was transported to the North-West. The total volume of transportation included a huge assortment of various food and industrial goods, industrial and agricultural raw materials. The connection of new artificial water systems - Mariinsky and Tikhvin - has greatly increased the movement of cargo flows both to the Baltic and in the opposite direction. Thus, in 1810, river transport delivered cargo worth over 105 million rubles to St. Petersburg alone (including for export). thirty

An outstanding role in the development of the Russian economy in the 18th century. played by the Volga-Kama water transport basin. Despite all the obstacles, robbery attacks, technical imperfection of means of transportation (the main pulling force was barge haulers), the cessation of movement along the river for a number of years during the uprising of E. Pugachev, the Volga attracted productive forces from a vast territory. Hundreds of caravans of ships with grain cargoes, salt, cast iron, iron (“iron, copper and money caravans”), timber, fisheries products, other food and industrial goods were formed along the numerous piers and berths of the Oka with its tributaries, the Sura, the Kama, the Belaya, Chusovaya and other rivers to get out in early spring on the main road of the country. “The basis of all commerce of the Russian Empire is the Volga...” 31 - this is how contemporaries assessed the waterway. Volga cargo flows led to the rapid growth of Rybinsk, Tver, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov, Astrakhan and a number of other piers, as well as the economic development of settlements associated with them. From the Dubovskaya pier, Volga grain received access to the Don; the Don Cossack Army was regularly supplied with it. With the opening of the Taganrog port in 1776, grain cargo received a new direction - for export. In subsequent decades, the importance of the Volga waterway continued to grow. The increase in domestic and foreign trade transactions influenced the volumes and expansion of cargo flows, the emergence of new piers and berths. In the first decade of the 19th century. the value of cargo transported along the lower and middle Volga alone was more than 100 million rubles. In 1829, throughout the Volga, the total value of goods transported by water reached 215.9 million rubles. 32
The Volga water transport found itself drawn into the process of intensive development of commercial agriculture on the Don, in Simbirsk, Saratov, as well as in the southern and southeastern regions of the Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan provinces 33 . Thanks to the connection of the Kama with the Volga, the Urals, which had a deeply continental position (from Ekaterinburg to the northwest to the Baltic Sea - 1800 km, to the south to the Sea of ​​Azov - 1600 km), was able to establish such commodity connections that drew it not only into the orbit of the All-Russian market, but also into global economic turnover.

An important condition for the economic development of the territory and the development of individual branches of production were the waterways of the North. P.A. Kolesnikov, who studied the socioeconomic aspects of this region (Pomorie), identified the northern waterways as one of the main area-forming factors. Thus, for Central Pomerania, which united a number of fishing districts, the Sukhon-Dvina route, ending with the port city of Arkhangelsk, was a “geographical and economic... nerve” 34.
As for the Dnieper and Don waterways, their socioeconomic essence was manifested, first of all, in the intensification of economic development of the territory 35. Moreover, in the zone of the Dnieper water transport basin, the Oginsk water system (connection of the Dnieper with the Baltic) played a special role. Its sphere of attraction included Volyn, Podolsk, Minsk and Grodno provinces. From this territory cargoes of grain, hemp, potash, resin, tar, vodka and other food products passed to the Baltic ports of Memel and Konigsberg. A significant amount of timber was rafted from here. Through the Oginsky Canal, iron, hemp, ropes, resin, soap, leather, lard, salt, etc. were transported from the Chernigov, Kiev and Ekaterinoslav provinces. 36 Navigation along the Dnieper in its lower part was very much hampered by the famous Dnieper rapids, the passage of which was limited is possible only in the spring, during the period of high water. In the summer, cargo was transported by land around the rapids for about 70 versts. The development of piers in the lower part of the Dnieper occurred in the last decade of the 18th and early 19th centuries. From that time on, many Dnieper cargoes began to be sent not only to Kherson, but also to Odessa, which arose in 1794 and quickly became the best port for the export of grain on the Black Sea coast 37 .
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of waterways for the development of Western Siberia and for the normal functioning of its settlements. The main importance for navigation was the Ob with its tributaries: on the right - the Tom, Chulym, Ket, Vag, Yugan, on the left - the Irtysh (with the Om, Ishim, Tobol, Tura and Iset) and Sosva. However, even in the first quarter of the 19th century, according to contemporaries, it was, although an important water system, “but unsuitable due to the poverty of the population of the neighboring countries, the severity of the climate, and the physical position of the rivers, flowing mostly from south to north , from temperate countries to cold, deserted and barren lands” 38. Mass shipping usually ended at Tobolsk, continuing as necessary to Berezov. Further places were deserted. Busy shipping was noted along the Tom, where the city of Tomsk was located, Omi (with the city of Omsk), the Irtysh, the main piers of which were Tara, Tobolsk, Bukhtarminskaya and Koryakovskaya.
Sources call the Tobol River, which flows into the Irtysh near Tobolsk and had its sources in the spurs of the Southern Urals 39, one of the “most useful rivers in Siberia both in terms of its own navigation and the importance of rafting on its tributaries.” The Tura River, on which Verkhoturye, Turinsk, and Tyumen were located, was of particular importance for navigation. Its tributary is the navigable Nitsa, where the famous Irbit fair was located.
In Eastern Siberia, the use of rivers covered with ice for 9 months was difficult due to sparse population and climatic conditions. The most intense shipping was observed on the Yenisei in the area from the confluence of the Abakan to the Yeniseisk. To the north, towards the ocean, “due to the desolation and savagery of the countries,” water transport was almost never used. The Angara (a tributary of the Yenisei, at the connection with the Ilim was called the Upper Tunguska) was important as a connecting link between the Yenisei and Irkutsk provinces. Navigation on the Lena was carried out from the Kachugskaya pier (or from Verkholensk) and to Yakutsk (or the mouth of Aldan). Further advancement along it made no sense (desertion and harsh climate). For the same reasons, the remaining rivers of the Lena basin were little used for navigation. The Selenga, which flows into Lake Baikal, was of particular importance for the residents of the Verkhneudinsk district of the Irkutsk province. From Irkutsk, through Baikal and Selenga, shipping was carried out to Kyakhta 40. In 1792, customs from Irkutsk was transferred to Kyakhta. Through it, cloth, canvas, yuft, fur goods, etc. were exported to China. The main Chinese product imported to Russia was tea.

XVIII century brought major changes to the management and operation of the transport network. If in the second half of the 17th century. supervision of navigation on waterways, traffic on horse-drawn roads, and their condition was mainly concentrated in the hands of local authorities, then already in the first half of the 18th century. Several special institutions appeared related to the operation of waterways in certain places: the Vyshnevolotsk lock office, the office of the Borovichi rapids on the Meta River, the Ladoga Canal Expedition. At the end of the century, the directorate of the Dvina (Western Dvina) and Dnieper rapids was created. Particular attention was paid to the management of hydraulic structures of the Vyshnevolotsk water transport hub. For many years they were maintained by the Novgorod merchant M.I. Serdyukov. Only at the end of the 40s of the 18th century. The Senate demanded the annual sending of statements of fees from passing ships. In the 60s, a manager of the Vyshnevolotsk canals and locks was appointed, almost simultaneously - from 1765 - all the main links of this important route (including along the Meta, Volkhov and Neva) were transferred to the jurisdiction of Lieutenant General Senator N.E. . Muravyov, who served as chief of the office of buildings state roads commander 41. Specific supervision of the Vyshnevolotsk waterway was concentrated in the hands of the Novgorod governor, since most of this water system passed through the territory of the Novgorod province.

The absence for a long time of a single authority for managing waterways led to impunity for various abuses committed by owners of coastal lands, to the lack of proper supervision of hydraulic structures, to a constant increase in bribes during their passage, neglect of the shipping route, malfunction of berths, etc. Numerous Senate decrees “with the strictest prohibitions” of any disorder in the field of shipping hung in the air. Considering that the upper Volga and the Vyshnevolotsk waterway played a primary role in transporting goods to the North-West, the Senate decided to legitimize the power of the Novgorod governor in the field of all shipping affairs in the territory of the Tver, Novgorod and St. Petersburg provinces. In 1773, Novgorod governor Ya.E. Sivere also began to be called the director of water communications. The Ladoga Canal, as the most important section of the Vyshnevolotsk route, was managed by an expedition whose work was controlled by the Senate. Since 1797, the Novgorod governor was entrusted with managing all the waterways of the empire. On February 28, 1798, the project of the Department of Water Communications was approved, which received rights on an equal basis with the boards of the Senate 42.

In 1806, the Department attempted to expand the development of state regulation of the conditions and procedure for free river navigation - the rivers on which navigation was carried out and there was a towpath were declared public rivers 43 .

Since 1809, the provinces of Novgorod, Tver and Yaroslavl (given their importance in relation to water transport systems) were headed, instead of a governor, by a governor general. His position was combined with the position of Chief Director of the Water Communications Department. Prince George of Oldenburg 44 received this post on April 26, 1809.

In the 18th century the horse-drawn network continued to grow rapidly. To a large extent, the existing road system was influenced by the geographical location of Moscow as an important administrative, commercial, industrial and distribution center. In the middle of the century, the main roads of the state were concentrated in this transport hub - to St. Petersburg, Smolensk (hereinafter - to the western lands), Belgorod, Voronezh, Kiev, Astrakhan (hereinafter - to Transcaucasia), Vologda, Arkhangelsk, Olonets, to Siberia (via Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Perm, Yekaterinburg). However, by this time, St. Petersburg had become not only the largest transport hub, but also the main port of Russia, for which connections with Moscow were especially important (the Moscow-St. Petersburg road - the “prospect” - was built starting in 1705 and was constantly being improved). For the new capital, the most significant in the sphere of political and economic relations were also the roads heading through Vyborg and the Finnish possessions to the Swedish border, through Narva to the western borders, and to the north to Olonets, Petrozavodsk, Onega and Arkhangelsk. The densest, oldest established network of roads was in the western part of the country (connections with the Baltic ports, Belarusian and Ukrainian lands, with the states of Western Europe).

In the 80s of the XVIII century. The question of strong ties with the southern and southwestern provinces became especially acute. Despite the trend of constant expansion of the network of dirt roads, the state of horse-drawn transport was characterized by extreme technical backwardness. Almost all economically and strategically important roads were in urgent need of repair. Ultimately, the state of the underground network jeopardized the growth of domestic and foreign trade, the development of certain branches of social production, and the needs of military movements. The problem of revising the entire system of organizing the transport network has become very acute for the government. An attempt at large-scale reforms began with the creation in 1786 of the “Commission on Roads in the State,” which was tasked with drawing up “General Rules for the Construction of Roads in Russia.” However, the weakness of Russia's internal economic organization doomed this grandiose project to failure. Having existed for about ten years, the Commission was only able to prepare a “Plan for drawing up general rules on the construction of roads in Russia” 45. After the failure of the project to radically reconstruct the main resource of horse-drawn transport - roads, the government refused to take any major measures regarding the land transport network. It found nothing else other than to publish a decree in August 1797, the essence of which boiled down to a recommendation to build and maintain roads as was done in Livonia, Courland and Lithuania. The relative prosperity in the road sector of the named region was explained by the rich experience in the development of transport practices in Sweden, the Livonian knighthood and the zemstvo institutions of Riga, which could not always be used in other territories 46 .

In September 1809, the Department of Water Communications was transformed into the Water Communications Expedition. It was also joined by the Expedition on the construction of roads in the state, created in 1800. Many departments and personally Secretary of State M.M. Speraasky were involved in the development of a project for improved management of communication routes. The project was approved by the tsar on November 20, 1809. And then the “Institution on the management of water and land communications” with the “Manifesto” was published. It explained the purpose of the new legislation: “Finding that the arrangement of numerous and convenient communications in the state ... constitutes one of the most important parts of government, and over time making sure that the spread of agriculture and industry, the growing population of the capital and the movement of domestic and foreign trade already exceed the measure of previous routes of communication, we recognized it necessary to provide part of this expansion, which may be characteristic of it in terms of the space of the empire, the abundance of its products and the competition of industry” 47 . All water and land roads came under the jurisdiction of the Main Directorate of Water and Land Communications, which on July 25, 1810 was renamed the Main Directorate of Communications (with the rights of a ministry). Thus, the country finally created a body under whose jurisdiction the entire vast, complex and intricate network of communication routes came. The entire transport network of Russia - water and land roads - was divided into ten districts, the organization of which was linked to the tasks of managing the operation and improvement of roads. Thus, the country finally created a body under whose jurisdiction the entire vast, complex and intricate network of communication routes came. In 1810, the Institute of the Corps of Engineers was opened in St. Petersburg with a four-year training period, the chief inspector of which was Lieutenant General A.A. Betancourt, who enjoys European fame as a “construction mechanic” 48.

In the first decades of the 19th century. Russia's transport network, with its vast territory and the separation of places of production of the most important goods from their sales markets, continued to remain the most important condition for the functioning of the national economy. Quite large canal construction projects continued during this period. Thus, the Belozersky Canal was built to bypass Lake Bely (in the Mariinsky waterway system), bypassing Lake Ilmen - Vishersky, and the second stage of the Onega bypass canal was completed. The last stage of the Dnieper-Bugsky (Royal, or Mukhavetsky) canal was put into operation, a connecting system named after. Duke A. Württemberg between Sheksna (Volga basin) and Kubensky Lake (Northern Dvina basin). Significant improvement work was carried out on the Dnieper (in the area of ​​the Dnieper rapids).

In 1825, a project for the construction of a connecting canal between the Moscow River and the Volga, conceived by Peter I, was approved. A number of the most important horse-drawn roads were paved, the first projects for the mechanization of water transport and special interest in the first proposals for the construction of railways appeared. However, due to the growth of productive forces, urban population, domestic and foreign trade, and the widespread mobilization of capital, the imperfection of means of transportation, water and land communications became increasingly obvious. The issue of transport from an economic one quickly turned into a political one, as it affected many areas of the socio-economic, socio-cultural and political life of the country. Not only specialists, but also many public figures, writers, publicists, and scientists wrote about the problems in transport - A.S. Pushkin, I.A. Vyazemsky, V.F. Odoevsky, V.F. Chizhov. The Decembrists P.G. especially advocated for the development of progressive trends in water transport, and sometimes for a complete restructuring of the entire transport system of the country. Kakhovsky, N.M. Muravyov, A.A. Bestuzhev, I.D. Yakushkin. N.M. Muravyov, already in exile, was especially deeply involved in the problems of water transport. Believing that Russia did not have the funds to build railways, he put forward a plan to create 53 canals, focusing on the Volga-Don and Oka-Don systems.

Thus, already in the first third of the 19th century, Russia’s transport network and its infrastructure were formed by a complex set of both positive and negative factors associated with the acute crisis of the feudal-serf system. The functioning of communications in social production has reached the most important stage in its development - the technical re-equipment of transport, which has caused dramatic changes in the composition of the transport network, means of transportation, social structure, quantitative and professional composition of workers serving the transport industry.

1 RGIA. F. 206. Op. 2. D. 238. L. 25.
2 Gauthier Yu.V. Zamoskovny region in the 17th century. - M., 1937; Tikhomirov M.N. Russia in the 16th century. - M., 1962.
3 Veselovsky S.B. Moscow region in ancient times. - M., 2002. P. 23.
4 Drobizhev V.Z., Kovalchenko I.D., Muravyov A.V. Historical geography of the USSR. - M., 1950.
5 Bagalei D.I. Essays on the history of colonization and life on the steppe outskirts of the Moscow State. T. 1. History of colonization. - M., 1987; Lyubavsksh M.K. Review of the history of Russian colonization from ancient times to the 20th century. - M., 1996. P. 295-297.
6 Bagalei D.I. Decree. op. P. 29.
7 Ibid. P. 32.
8 Golubtsov IA. Communication routes in the former lands of Novgorod the Great in the 16th-17th centuries and their reflection on the Russian map of the 17th century. // Questions of geography. Sat. 20. Historical geography of the USSR. - M., 1950.
9 Ibid. P. 284.
10 Ibid. pp. 278-286.
11 Meyen V.F. Russia in terms of roads. - St. Petersburg, 1902. P. 15-17.
12 Ibid.
13 Istomina E.G. Waterways of Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. - M., 1982. P. 26. The carrying capacity of a relatively small river vessel (barque 6-8 thousand), widely used on the rivers of the Volga-Kama basin, was hundreds of times higher than the carrying capacity of a unit of rolling stock of horse-drawn transport - carts, carts, sleigh - Right there.
14 Zakhoder B.N. Caspian collection of information about Eastern Europe. - M., 1967. T. 2. P. 157.
15 RGIA. F. 206. On. 1. D. 1015. L. 26. Before the construction of the cascade of waterworks, the length of the Volga was 3690 km. See: Porochkin E.M., Zarbailov A.Yu. Inland waterways of the USSR. Directory. - M., 1975.
16 Lyubimenko I. History of trade relations between Russia and England. Vol. 1. - Yuryev, 1912. P. 124-126; Skrynnikov R.G. Russia at the beginning of the 17th century. "Troubles." - M., 1988. P. 134-135. With the help of the Hanseatic cities, the Russian government hoped to establish maritime relations with Western countries through Ivangorod and the mouth of the Narova. However, Sweden, which had a first-class fleet in the Baltic, resolutely prevented all attempts of this kind. See Skrynnikov R.G. Decree. op. P. 134.
17 Kostomarov N.I. Essay on the history of the Moscow state in the 16th-17th centuries. - St. Petersburg, 1862. P. 66-67.
18 Dubman E.L. Commercial entrepreneurship and development of the commercial Volga region in the second half of the 16th-17th centuries. Author's abstract. diss.... doctor ist. n. - Saratov, 2000. P. 21.
19 Yukht A.I. Trade relations between Russia and the countries of the East in the 20-40s of the 18th century. // Historical geography of Russia in the 18th century. Part 1. Cities, industry, trade. - M., 1981. P. 97-101.
20 Ibid. pp. 130-134.
21 Lyubavsky M.K. Review of the history of Russian colonization from ancient times to the 20th century. - M., 1996. P. 444-460.
22 Kostomarov N.I. Decree. op. pp. 130-132.
23 Ibid.
24 Zagoskin N.P. Russian waterways and shipping in pre-Petrine Russia. - Kazan, 1910. P. 324-327.
25 Russian legislation of the 10th and 20th centuries. T. 3. Acts of Zemsky Sobors. - M., 1985. P. 98-101.
26 Ibid. P. 101.
27 Gorelov V.A. River canals in Russia: (on the history of Russian canals in the 18th century). - M.-L., 1953. P. 12-13.
28 RGIA. F. 159. On. 1. D. 557. L. 33-34.
29 Istomina E.G. Waterways of Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. - M., 1982.
30 RGIA. F. 206. On. 1. D. 8. L. 152 vol. 153.
31 RO GPB. F. Hermitage collection. D. 87.
32 Istomina E.G. Water transport in Russia in the pre-reform period. - M., 1991. P. 139.
33 Rubinshtein N.L. Territorial division of labor and the development of the all-Russian market //From the history of the working class and the revolutionary movement. In memory of A.M. Pankratova. - M., 1958. P. 100.
34 Kolesnikov P.A. Northern village in the 15th - first half of the 19th century. - Vologda, 1976. P. 51.
35 Until the 70s. XVIII century (i.e., before the first partition of Poland) The Dnieper was a border river between Russian and Polish possessions. Only in the 90s. it gains the ability to function normally.
36 RGIA. F. 159. Op. 1. D. 40. L. 83-84.
37 Zolotoye V. A. Foreign trade of Southern Russia in the first half of the 19th century. - Rostov n/d, 1963. P. 20-25.
38 RGIA. F. 1409. Op. 2. D. 5885.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Istomina E.G. Waterways of Russia... P. 31.
42 Ibid. pp. 39-40.
43 PSZ-1. T. 28. No. 22150.
44 A brief historical outline of the development and activities of the Department of Railways (1798-1898) - St. Petersburg, 1898. pp. 33-36. The new director belonged to the royal family. 8 days before the appointment, the marriage of him and Alexander I’s sister, Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna, was announced. The prince was given the title of “Imperial Highness” - see RGADA. F. 376. Op. 3. D. 2036. L. 2.
45 Istomina E.G. Waterways of Russia... P. 22-25.
46 Ibid. P. 25.
47 Brief historical sketch... pp. 33-36.
48 RGIA. F. 446 On. 1. D. 2. L. 106.

STATE MARINE ACADEMY NAMED AFTER ADMIRAL MAKAROV

FACULTY OF NAVIGATION

TEST

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY OF WATERWAYS

teacher: prof. Antonov Yuri Petrovich

Option: 4

Part-time student

BORISKIN OLEG IVANOVICH

Gradebook No. 1958984

2003

I. Give the physical-geographical and navigational characteristics of the Northern Sea Basin and the adjacent coasts within Russia. Recommended sea routes and traffic separation areas in the Barents and White Seas

Geographical location and transport and economic significance of the basin

The waters of the Northern Sea Basin wash the northwestern coast of Russia. The seas included in the basin (Barents and White) are part of the Arctic Ocean and mostly lie beyond the Arctic Circle. The Northern Basin is the only Russian basin that has direct deep-water and ice-free access to the Atlantic Ocean. Its width between the North Cape and the island. Bear 226 miles, between o. Bear and Cape Yuzhny - 140 miles, and the depth is from 100 to 400 m. The Northern Sea Route is the shortest exit of the basin to the Pacific Ocean.

The seas of the Northern Basin and the western part of the Arctic Basin face the rapidly developing regions of the Soviet North, abounding in natural resources that are in great demand on the world market. These areas are remote from railways, so sea transport here is the only mode of transport that carries out mass transportation of goods. The development of the economy of the North is inextricably linked with the expansion of the scope of maritime transport.

Physiographic and navigational characteristics of the basin

The Northern Sea Basin covers an area of ​​1,495 thousand km 2, of which only 90 thousand km 2 is in the White Sea. The length of the Barents Sea is 700-750 miles, and the White Sea is 315, the width is 600-650 and 250 miles, respectively. The Barents Sea is deeper, its average depth is 229 m versus 89 m in the White Sea.

The enormous length from west to east and the location of the basin between the Euro-Asian continent and the Arctic Ocean covered with permanent ice affect the diversity of physiographic and navigation conditions in its various parts.

The shores of the Barents and White Seas are predominantly high, rocky, indented by fjords and bays cutting deeply into the land. The largest of them are: Porsangerfjord, Varangerfjord, Kola. Mezensky, Onega, Dvinsky and Kandalaksha bays.

To the east from Cape Kanin Nos to the Yugorsky Shar Strait, the shores are low. The Pechora Bay cuts deep into the land. The island shores are mostly high.

In the Barents Sea, depths of less than 100 m stretch along the coast and for tens of miles from it. They then increase in size as they move out to sea. The islands are located close to the coast and do not pose any particular danger to navigation.

Arkhangelsk is the oldest port in our country, it was founded in 1584. During the years of Soviet power, the Arkhangelsk port has turned into a powerful and main timber export point of the country. The seaport is located on both banks of the Northern Dvina, 27 miles from the mouth. Thirty-five port berths with a depth of 8.25 m stretch along both banks of the river. In addition to the berths of the seaport, transport ships use numerous berths of sawmills and wood processing plants. The berths are highly mechanized and specialized for loading timber and timber, as well as for processing general, bulk (coal, mineral construction), liquid (oil), food and other cargo. The port has covered warehouses and concrete storage areas. Numerous self-propelled electric portal cranes with heavy lifting capacity are installed along the cordon line of the berths, in their rear and near the warehouses. The entrance to the port is via a fairway with a depth at the bar of 7.3 m.

Navigation in the port usually begins in the second half of May and ends in December. The port is connected by rail and inland waterways to the interior regions of the country. The port has the Krasnaya Kuznitsa ship repair plant.

The port's cargo turnover in 1967 exceeded 4 million tons. The structure of cargo turnover is dominated by timber and wood processing industry products.

The Northern Shipping Company Administration and the Navigation School are located in Arkhangelsk.

In addition to the main ones, there are a number of local ports in the basin.

Belomorsk - serves ships sailing along the White Sea-Baltic Canal.

Kandalaksha is a specialized port for the export of apatite concentrate and iron ore.

Onega is a port serving ships with a draft of up to 3 m and specialized in the transportation of timber and timber cargo.

Naryan-Mar is located at the mouth of the river. Pechora and serves mainly for the export of Pechora coal and timber.

It should also be noted the timber export ports of Umba in the north and Kovda, Keret on the southern shore of Kandalaksha Bay, Kem on the western shore of Onega Bay and Mezen 16 miles from the mouth of the river of the same name.

Economic characteristics of Russian regions gravitating towards the basin

The North-Western, Ural and East Siberian economic regions gravitate towards the Northern Sea Basin and the western part of the Arctic.

The North-Western region faces the basin of the Myrman and Arkhangelsk regions and the Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. These areas are rich in natural resources, mainly minerals and forests.

There are more than 100 minerals in the fossil complex of the Murmansk region. The explored reserves of apatite amount to about 2 billion tons. The total reserves of iron ore are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. There are nephelines, nickel and other ores. Among the natural resources, the fish wealth of the Barents Sea and the North Atlantic should also be noted.

Apatite ores mined in the Kirovsk region are enriched and in the form of apatite concentrate are delivered to the ports of Murmansk and Kandalaksha for export to the country's superphosphate plants and for export.

In the Arkhangelsk, Vologda regions and Komi ASSR, 65% of the area is occupied by forests, which are mainly located along rivers, near timber export ports and internal consumption centers. The main economic sectors of these areas are the forestry industry, the products of which are mainly exported. The forests of the eastern part of the North-Western economic region provide 15% of timber harvested in the USSR, 11% of lumber and 8% of paper production. Wood processing for export is carried out directly in the ports of Arkhangelsk, Onega, Mezen, Naryan-Mar. The second powerful cargo-generating zone is the Pechora coal basin. About 20 million tons of coal are mined in the area of ​​Vorkuta and Srednyaya Pechora. A significant part of it by rail and by water (along the Usa and Pechora rivers) arrives at the port of Naryan-Mar for transportation to the ports of the Northern Basin and for export.

Organization of maritime transport management in the basin, fleet and repair bases

The transport fleet of the Northern Basin consists of outdated specialized large-tonnage vessels: timber carriers of the Volgoles, Pavlin Vinogradov, Vyborgles type with a speed of 14-16 knots, carbon carriers of the Ugleuralsk, Dzhankoy type with a speed of 15 knots, icebreaker transport ships of the "Anguema" type with reinforced ice reinforcements of the hulls and a speed of 15 knots: icebreakers for various purposes, including the powerful linear icebreaker "Kiev" and the nuclear icebreaker "Lenin". The main core of the fleet (about 80% of the ships) was built in the last millennium, over 70% of the ships have a speed of 12 knots or more. To keep the ships in working order, a ship repair plant was built in Murmansk, and the Krasnaya Kuznitsa ship repair plant was reconstructed in Arkhangelsk. The fleet, ports and ship repair yards are organizationally united into the Murmansk and Northern Shipping Companies and the independent Icebreaker Fleet Administration.

Murmansk Shipping Company has a fleet consisting mainly of carbon-carrying vessels. The shipping company is subordinate to the Murmansk, Kandalaksha and Dikson commercial ports, the Murmansk Shipyard and other organizations that ensure the transport and production activities of the shipping company.

The Northern Shipping Company owns mainly timber-carrying vessels. Subordinate ports: Arkhangelsk, Onega, Mezen, Naryan-Mar and Amderma and the Krasnaya Kuznitsa ship repair plant.

Sea routes and navigation features in certain areas of the basin

Between the ports of the Northern Basin, sea routes pass along the shortest and safest navigation distances. The peculiarity of the routes going to the ports of the Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic is their coastal location. Within the boundaries of the basin, sea routes are insignificant in length. So, from Murmansk to Barentsburg (Spitsbergen Island) the length of the route is 680 miles, to Arkhangelsk 431 miles, from Arkhangelsk to Kandalaksha 260 miles, and to Belomorsk - 183.

The length of sea routes from the port of Murmansk to the port of Dikson is 898 miles, and to the Dmitry Laptev Strait -2000 miles. The length of the route from the main ports of the Barents and White Seas to Igarka is 36 miles, to Tiksi - 2,049 miles. The areas with the most difficult navigation conditions are straits and approaches to mouth ports. In the strait of the White Sea throat, 55 miles long and 25-30 miles wide, the route of sea routes passes within the navigable fairway with 20-meter depths. Significant difficulties for navigation in this area are created by tidal currents, variable in direction and speed, reaching 6-7 knots. In winter, conditions are complicated by the appearance of moving hummocky ice.

The sea routes from the Barents to the Kara Sea pass through the wide and deep Kara Gate Strait. Its length is 18 miles, width from 17 to 25 miles, and the depth of the navigable part is up to 100 m. Straits Matochkin Shar 55 miles long, width from 3 cable to 4 miles and the smallest depths of 14 m and Yugorsky Shar 21 miles long, width from 1. 5 to 7 miles and a shallowest depth of 12 m lie off the main route and are used primarily by fishing vessels.

Conditions on the coastal sections of routes to seaports located at river mouths and on rivers are hampered by shallow water associated with large drifts in the entrance fairways and ice conditions. On the entrance fairways of the ports of Arkhangelsk and Naryan-Mar, for example, dredging work is carried out throughout the entire navigation.

Shipping on sea routes. Main freight and passenger traffic

Shipping companies organize both linear shipping and the navigation of ships on successive voyages on the sea routes of the Northern Basin.

In cabotage, regular shipping is carried out on lines

Arkhangelsk - Kandalaksha, Murmansk - ports of the White Sea, Kandalaksha - Belomorsk - Cherepovets and Murmansk - Barentsburg.

In overseas navigation, lines are organized: Murmansk - ports of Western Europe, Murmansk - ports of Canada, Poland, Sweden, Denmark and other countries, and successive flights are carried out in the directions Arkhangelsk - Dudinka, Naryan-Mar - Amderma, Murmansk - Dikson, Arkhangelsk - Tiksi, as well as between the ports of the Northern Basin and the ports of European, African and other countries. Cargo transportation on ships in the Northern Basin amounts to more than 9 million tons, and cargo turnover has reached 14 billion ton-miles.

The main cargo flows in the Northern Basin are timber and timber, apatite, coal, iron ore, building materials, machinery and equipment, industrial, food and other supply cargo.

Timber cargo flows originate in Igarka, Arkhangelsk and other timber export ports in the basin and go in two directions:

around the Scandinavian Peninsula to the ports of Europe, Africa and America and to inland waterways through the White Sea-Baltic Canal. Among the timber cargoes, every year more and more volumes are occupied by the products of sawmills, pulp and paper and other wood processing enterprises.

Cargo flows of apatite concentrates begin in the ports of Murmansk and Kandalaksha and are sent in large volumes around Scandinavia to the ports of various countries around the world, and in smaller volumes along inland waterways to the ports of the Volga, Caspian and Baltic basins.

Iron ore cargo flow has been established between Murmansk, Kandalaksha and Cherepovets. Ore concentrates are exported in small volumes to the ports of European countries. The cargo flow of non-ferrous metal ores is developing rapidly, which originates in the port of Dudinka and goes to Murmansk and Kandalaksha.

Coal cargo flows are of a cabotage nature. They originate on about. Spitsbergen and the port of Naryan-Mar and go to Murmansk, Arkhangelsk and other ports in the basin.

During the non-navigation period, machinery, equipment and various supply cargo are concentrated in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk and, with the beginning of Arctic navigation, are transported mainly to the ports of the western sector of the Arctic. Research by economists shows that the directions of these cargo flows will remain the same in the coming years, and their volumes will increase significantly.

In this regard, it is planned to replenish the fleet with modern specialized ships (carbon carriers and timber carriers), expand the ports, primarily Murmansk and Arkhangelsk, and increase the capacity of ship repair enterprises.

2. Give the transport and economic characteristics of Cuba, Vietnam, Korea. Indicate the role of maritime transport in ensuring domestic and foreign trade transport of these countries. Describe the main sea ports, their structure and cargo turnover; development of shipbuilding in these countries. The main directions of development of the maritime fleet and the geography of transport connections of these countries.

People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China has access to the World Ocean for 12 thousand years. km. Its borders are washed by the ice-free Yellow, East China and South China seas. Along the entire coast there are many deep-water bays and bays, as well as navigable rivers, accessible to large seagoing vessels. The development of sea routes is also facilitated by the historical location of productive forces in the country. The most industrialized and densely populated economic regions of China are located in coastal areas and are closely connected to maritime communications.

The Northeast Economic Region (Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning provinces) faces the Yellow and East China Seas. This is a large industrial center of the country. The main coal mining areas are located on its territory (near the cities of Fushun, Benxi, Fuxin and Hegang). In the area An-shan, Benxi, Dalian have ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises using local raw materials. During the years of people's power, enterprises for the production of automobiles (Changchun), machine tools, engines, mining equipment, and shipbuilding grew here. The North-Eastern economic region has developed forestry, pulp and paper, textile and food industries. In agriculture, the leading place is occupied by the production of soybeans.

To the south of the Northeast lies the equally important economic region of Northern China (the provinces of Hebei, Shantung, Henan and Shanxi). In this area, on the basis of coal deposits (in the areas of Kailuan, Jingxing, Fengfeng and Datong) and local iron ore mining, ferrous metallurgy and related mechanical engineering have been developed (Shijishan, Taiyuan, Tianjin, Tanshan, Yanquan and Xuanhua ); The chemical industry, as well as the cotton, silk, wool and food industries, developed. Agriculture is dominated by cotton, peanuts and partly grain crops.

In Eastern China (the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, An-hui, Fujian) iron ore is mined, on the basis of which a metallurgical plant operates in the city of Maanshan. Mechanical engineering is developed in Shanghai, Nanjing and other cities. Textile machines, engines, various electrical equipment and ships are created here; The cotton, food and chemical industries are developed. Sericulture is developed in the Nanjing - Hanzhou - Shanghai region.

To the west of the East China region is Central China (the provinces of Hubei, Hunan and Jiangxi) with developed ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. In recent years, mechanical engineering has developed.

South China, an economic region covering Guangdong Province and the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, faces the South China Sea. This is an agricultural area specializing in the cultivation of citrus fruits, sugar cane, rice, and rubber. Fishing, handicraft and food industries are developed. Based on large deposits of manganese, tin and iron ore, the mining industry began to develop here.

The far regions of gravity are:

Southwestern China (Sichuan, Yunnan and Guizhou provinces) - specializes in the production of rare non-ferrous metals and salt. To the west of it, in the Tibet region, the main economic sector is livestock raising.

Northwestern China (Shenxi, Gunsu, Qinghai and Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region provinces) - the main wealth is oil, the production of which does not yet satisfy the country's needs.

Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region are agricultural (mainly livestock-raising) regions.

The latitudinal direction of river flows and the meridional location of the sea coast contribute to the widespread use of inland waterways for the delivery of goods from areas of gravity to seaports and in the opposite direction. Many rivers are accessible to large sea vessels.

Of all the sectors of the Chinese economy, mining and light industry, non-ferrous metallurgy, and agricultural production are most connected to the world market.

China exports non-ferrous metal ores, tungsten and molybdenum concentrate, iron ore, as well as antimony, tin, mercury, zinc oxide, tungsten and other non-ferrous metals. Light industry produces vegetable oils, silk, wool, knitwear, and various food products for export. Traditional agricultural exports include oilseeds (soybeans, beans), rice, tea, tobacco, fruits, jute, and raw hides.

To support its developing economy, China imports machinery, machine tools, rolled ferrous metals, oil, fertilizers, rubber, cotton and many other goods. China's foreign trade is carried out by sea, through the country's main seaports.

Shanghai is the largest port in China. Consists of an old port and an outport.

The old port is located on the river. Huangpu 14 miles from its confluence with the river. Yangtze and 35 miles from the sea. Its water area lies within the city for 35 km. On both sides of the river there are specialized berths with a total length of more than 9 km, of which about half are floating. These are metal pontoons with a length of 70-80 m s reinforced deck covered with concrete, allowing a load of 2.5 T by 1 m 2 . Floating berths are connected to the shore

bridges. The disadvantage of such berths is the inability to use gantry cranes. Depths at the berths and in the water area are maintained by dredging up to 9 m. The area of ​​closed warehouses exceeds 500 thousand. m 2 , and open areas - 800 thousand. m 2 . The berths are not yet sufficiently mechanized; unloading is carried out mainly by ship mechanisms and manually.

The outport is located 4 km from the mouth of the river Yangtze. Berth length 3.7 km, and the depths at berths are 8-12 m. It mainly serves foreign trade transportation.

The entrance to the port is carried out along two approach fairways of the river mouth. Yangtze - northern and southern. Large ocean-going vessels (with a draft of more than 7 m) can enter the port only during high tide, the magnitude of which reaches 4 m.

Tidal fluctuations in level at the entrance to the river. Huangpu 3 m, and in the port 0.3 m. The port's cargo turnover is 20-25 million. T. The structure of cargo turnover is extremely diverse and is determined by the fact that the entire river basin gravitates towards Shanghai. Yangtze, which is accessible to sea vessels for more than 1000 km.

Currently, about half of the cargo turnover is accounted for by industrial products (machine tools, machinery, industrial goods, etc.), followed by ore, coal, sulfates, grain, flour and other bulk cargo.

There are four shipbuilding and ship repair yards in Shanghai.

Dalian is located at the southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula, in the deep-water, ice-free Dalian Wan Bay. In three harbors and at oil piers there are more than 50 berths with a total length of 10 km, with depths from 8 to 14 m. Vessels with a draft of more than 8 m enter the port only during high tide, the magnitude of which is 3 m.

There are more than 300 thousand people in the port. m 2 covered warehouses and about 700 thousand. m 2 open cargo areas. The inner harbor serves vessels transporting piece cargo, ore, containerized technical cargo, soybeans, grain, etc.

The coal harbor, located on the northern shore of the bay, is highly mechanized. On its territory there are storage areas for coal storage; an overpass with coal loaders with a capacity of up to 1200 is installed on the pier. t/h

The Oil Harbor can simultaneously handle four tankers with a carrying capacity of up to 20,000 T. Ships are also bunkered with liquid fuel here.

The port has a marine passenger terminal that can accommodate up to 3,000 passengers and a shipyard with two dry docks. The city has a maritime institute, which trains personnel for Chinese maritime transport.

Liushun is located 25 miles south of Dalian and is the terminus of the Harbin Railway.

The port has a ship repair plant with two dry docks for large and medium sea vessels and with berths up to 10 deep m

The cargo turnover of this complex is more than 5 million. T per year, which is 2 times. less than its capacity. The cargo turnover is dominated by shipments of coal, coke, ferrous metals, cement, glass, timber, soybeans, ores, table salt and machinery; in arrival - oil, petroleum products, rice, metal products, building materials, rubber and other goods.

Qinhuangdao, a specialized coal port, is accessible to ships with a carrying capacity of up to 10 thousand tons, which can enter it without waiting for the tide. Coal comes to the port from nearby mines and from Northeast China by rail. The port's cargo turnover is about 5 million tons, more than three-quarters consists of coal, which is sent to Chinese and foreign ports.

Tianjin is a major transport hub, sea and river port, located at the confluence of five tributaries of the river. Haihe The Great Chinese Canal and a number of railways and highways pass through it.

The seaport consists of three sections remote from each other: (separate ports): Tianjin proper (46 miles from the mouth) Gangu (17 miles from the mouth) and the new section of Xingang (at the mouth of the river) These sections are connected by rail and represent a port complex.

Tianjin section with berth front 1.4 km and depths 2.6 m serves ships with a carrying capacity of up to 2,500 tons, processing mainly general cargo.

Xingang mouth port. Its water area is fenced by two piers, protecting the port from waves and dependence. The site is separated from the river by a lock with a depth of 5 thresholds m into low water. Five berths have a length of 500 m. Three of them are specialized in processing general cargo, and two are specialized in processing coal.

The cargo turnover of the port complex is over 3 million tons. The structure is dominated by: groundnuts, wool, cotton, industrial equipment.

Qingdao is the deepest seaport of the People's Republic of China. It is located in Jiaozhou Bay. The harbor is naturally protected from rough seas and is accessible at any time to ships with a draft of up to 13 m. The port has 12 berths on four piers. Piers are specialized. One serves passenger transportation, the other is dedicated to the processing of general cargo, the third is equipped for the export of salt, and the fourth is equipped for the transshipment of petroleum products. The port is connected to the country's railway and is the main fishing base in the Yellow Sea.

The port's cargo turnover is about 3 million tons. In the structure of cargo turnover, grain, tobacco, coal, ore, peanuts, salt, olives and sulfate occupy a prominent place.

Guangzhou (Canton) is the largest port of Southern China; it is located in the river delta. Xijiang at its confluence with the river. Zhujiang is 80 miles from the South China Sea. Shallow depths on the river bar. Xijiang allows only small ships to approach the city directly. Larger seagoing vessels are handled at the seaports of Guangzhou - Huangpu, built in 1950 and accessible to vessels with a carrying capacity of up to 10 thousand, and Jiangjiang, built in 1957 to handle larger seagoing vessels. The cargo turnover of this complex is more than 2 million tons, of which 3/4 are foreign trade cargo: rubber, metals, chemical fertilizers and etc.

Zhanjiang is the largest new port, serving modern large-tonnage ships arriving in South China. It is located in the harbor of Guangzhouwan Bay with a depth of 12 m. The port has two dry cargo and oil berths. The port's sampling capacity is up to 5 million tons. Currently, cargo turnover is dominated by grain cargo, jute, ore, oil and petroleum products, machinery and equipment.

The port is connected to the hinterland by railway and highway buildings.

The Chinese navy was created anew and has hundreds of ships with a gross tonnage of more than 2.5 million. reg. tons, which is three times larger than the fleet of old China. The fleet is replenished through the acquisition of ships abroad and the construction of ships at domestic shipyards.

Linear (regular) shipping is currently widely used in organizing transportation on sea routes. The Chinese fleet serves more than 40 coastal lines with a total length of over 10 thousand miles and several overseas lines. In foreign transportation, the share of the domestic fleet is extremely small. This is largely explained by the lack of tonnage: the rapid growth in needs for sea transportation significantly outpaces the increase in the carrying capacity of the domestic fleet.

The structure of maritime cargo flows has also changed significantly. If in the past half of the total cargo turnover was accounted for by agricultural and handicraft products, now more than 2/3 of the total volume of transportation is industrial products. In cabotage, two large groups of cargo flows are distinguished: on the sea routes north and south of the center of cabotage transport - Shanghai.

From the ports of Luida, Tianjin, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao and others, coal, timber, metal products, salt, soybeans, petroleum products and other industrial products are transported to Shanghai, and in the opposite direction there is a cargo flow of grain, flour, ore, tea, and consumer goods.

Freight flows on sea routes running from Shanghai to southern ports (Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang, etc.) consist of industrial consumer goods, timber, tea leaves, sugar, and marine products.

Coastal cargo flows to northern ports exceed the volume of cargo flows to the southern ports of the country. This is explained by the lower level of industrial development of the southern regions, as well as insufficient transport connections between these ports and the interior regions of the country. In the foreign trade transportation of the PRC, there are four main directions of cargo flows: northern, southern, western and eastern.

In the northern direction, transportation is carried out along international sea routes connecting the ports of China with the ports of Korea, Japan and other countries. In this direction, China exports coal, salt, ore, chemical and agricultural products, and receives metals, fertilizers, machinery, oil and petroleum products.

Freight flows that pass along sea routes connecting the ports of China with the ports of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Indonesia, Burma, Australia and other countries form a southern direction. China exports its industrial products (machines, equipment, fabrics, weaving machines) and agricultural products (mulberry oil, rice) in this direction. In the opposite direction it receives cotton, jute, rubber and other goods.

In the western direction, cargo flows travel along sea routes along the Indian and Atlantic oceans to countries in Africa, the Middle East and Europe.

In this direction, China exports agricultural products, ores and ore concentrates, light and food industry products, raw hides and other goods.

Imports consist of petroleum and petroleum products, machinery, metals, industrial equipment, machine tools, as well as cotton and other raw materials.

The Republic maintains trade relations with more than 80 countries.

Democratic People's Republic of Korea

The Democratic People's Republic of Korea has access from the west to the Yellow Sea, and from the east to the Sea of ​​Japan. The coast of the Yellow Sea is shallow and with high tides (3 m), rapid currents and frequent fogs have unfavorable conditions for the use of sea routes. More favorable for this is the coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, where there are many deep-water, ice-free bays.

Mineral raw materials and industrial sectors located on the territory of the DPRK gravitate towards sea routes. They are even geographically located in coastal areas, near ports.

The industries most closely associated with seaborne foreign trade transportation are: coal (in the Pyongyang area), iron ore (in the Tumangan and Cheoncheongan river areas), magnesite and graphite mining (in which the republic ranks first in the world), ferrous metallurgy (in the city of Kim Chak, Chongjin), non-ferrous metallurgy (Nampo and Hysnam), mechanical engineering (Hichon, Kusong, Pukjin), as well as chemical, textile, food and building materials.

However, at present, the share of maritime transport in the country’s total cargo turnover is still small (about 1%). The reason is the significant development of land transport. Sea transportation is carried out most intensively along the sea routes of the Sea of ​​Japan.

The most important ports are:

Wonsan is a major seaport and fishing base on the east coast. It is located on the southern shore of Yongheungman Bay, in a harbor naturally protected from rough seas by a sandbar. Depths at the entrance to the bay 14-16 m, The harbor is accessible to large sea vessels. The port is connected to the country's railway network and has great opportunities for development.

Nampho is a significant trading and fishing port in the Yellow Sea. Located at the mouth of the river. Taedongang, at 30 km from Pyongyang and is the outport of the capital. It is connected by railway and waterway to the interior regions of the country and the nearby centers of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. There is a shipbuilding plant in the port.

The country's main foreign trade transportation passes through these ports. The maritime fleet consists of several ships, tugs and barges. This is a young fleet created after the war. It is currently being replenished with new vessels. The main directions of maritime transport of the DPRK are to the ports of Russia and China (non-ferrous metals, ores, ferroalloys, chemical cargo, metal products, fruits), as well as to the ports of Japan (iron ore, magnesite, graphite, machinery and equipment).

Democratic Republic of Vietnam

The Democratic Republic of Vietnam has access to the South China Sea for 570 years km. The coast is bordered by numerous shallows and sand bars, inconvenient for access to sea routes. Along the entire coast, the republic has several ports accessible to small coastal vessels.

The main seaport of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam is Haiphong. It is located on the river. Red, which with its branched delta flows into the Gulf of Tonkin. An artificial canal leads to the port, accessible to ships with a draft of up to 9 m. Cargo operations are carried out both at berths and in roadsteads. The port is connected by rail and highways to the hinterland. Along the river On the Red River it is connected to the capital of the republic, Hanoi, to which only shallow-draft ships can ascend.

To the east of Haiphong are the small ports of Khon Gai and Kampha, which serve the nearby coalfield.

DRV is an agricultural country specializing in rice cultivation. Of the industrial sectors, mining is the most developed and closely connected with foreign trade. The main export items of the DRV are: coal, non-ferrous metal ores, cement, apatite, agricultural products, valuable timber, and handicrafts.

The country's imports consist mainly of metal products, machinery and equipment, chemical products and fertilizers, oil and petroleum products.

The maritime fleet consists of several seagoing vessels, barges and tugs. Coastal transportation is carried out mainly on small coastal vessels. The share of maritime transport in the country's transportation is less than 7%.

Foreign trade maritime transport is carried out between the ports of Russia and China, as well as European countries of the socialist camp and a number of capitalist countries.

The nascent development of the fleet was hindered by the war unleashed by aggressive US circles. Currently, maritime transport provides military transportation.

Socialist Republic of Cuba

Cuba is the first country in the Western Hemisphere to take the path of socialism. Unlike other countries of the socialist camp, it is located at a great distance and has only sea and air transport for communication with them.

The use of sea routes is facilitated by its island position, the dependence of the economy on foreign trade and the location of international sea routes with intensive shipping near the island.

Cuba's northern part faces the Atlantic Ocean, and its southern part faces the Caribbean Sea.

Agriculture and the industries that process its products are most closely connected with the world socialist market (raw sugar accounts for 80% of exports, and tobacco products - up to 10%); oil refining industry (plants in Havana and Santiago, operating on imported oil, up to 4-5 million. T per year), nickel plants in Nicaro and a developing mining industry.

The country's foreign trade goes through the main ports of the republic: Havana, Santiago, Matanzas.

Havana is the capital and major port. Its harbor is located in a naturally protected bay, which is connected to the ocean by a narrow strait 12 meters deep. m.

The quay front is located mainly on the western shore within the city. On the opposite side of the bay there are piers for loading sugar, coal, and oil cargo. Depths at piers and breakwaters up to 11.9 m. The berths are well mechanized. The port has an elevator, a refrigerator, modern warehouses, large tanks for petroleum products and open areas for bulk cargo, machinery, equipment, as well as a bunker base and repair shops. The port's cargo turnover is 8 million. T. Through the port, the republic receives: grain cargo, coal, cement, timber, general cargo (machinery, equipment, industrial goods, etc.), and exports mainly raw sugar, tobacco, fruits, vegetables and ore concentrates.

Other ports include Santiago, accessible to ships with a draft of 7.9 m, specializing in the export of iron and manganese ores and sugar. Matanzas, accessible to ships with a draft of 9 m and Cienfuegos - 8.8 m, which are specialized for the export of raw sugar and the import of food.

The merchant fleet began to be created after the victory of the revolution. In 1966, it already consisted of 39 ships with a total displacement of 212 thousand. T and is one of the largest in Latin America. The fleet's vessels are operated by the Empressa Consolidada de Navegacion Mambisa shipping company, created after the revolution. Cuban ships currently use almost all major international sea routes to transport goods. They visit ports in Europe and Asia, Africa and America.

The most intensive maritime transport is carried out between the ports of Cuba and the Baltic and Black Sea ports of Russia, as well as other European socialist countries. In addition, Cuba maintains economic ties with a number of capitalist countries.

3. Describe the main areas where coal is located and its global production. Exporting countries, importing countries. Direction of coal cargo flows in the World Ocean. Main coal ports, their cargo turnover.

Coal occupies one of the leading places in the sea transportation of dry cargo ships. It accounts for 60 million. T.

Despite the extreme uneven distribution of coal deposits, only about 5% of global production is exported (while about 1/3 of oil is exported). This is explained primarily by a decrease in the specific gravity of stone coal in the world's energy resources due to an increase in the share of oil and gas.

The major change in the geography of the world coal trade since the Second World War is perhaps the loss of Europe's position as the leading exporter of coal to all areas of the globe in need of it. In 1913, for example, England exported 96 million annually. T coal. It was the main supplier of coal to European countries, Latin American countries and others.

After the Second World War the situation changed radically.

By the end of the fifties, the export of coal from Europe to other parts of the world by sea (which amounted to 30 million - 40 million before the war) T per year) has practically ceased. Moreover, European countries themselves have now begun to import it from the USA and Canada. A diagram of modern international sea cargo flows of coal is shown in the figure.

The volume of seaborne coal transportation in recent years is shown in the table

As can be seen from the table, ocean transport of coal to Europe amounts to 25.8 million tons. T, to Japan - 12.2 million. T and South America - 2 million. T, which in total accounts for more than half of seaborne coal transport.

Thus, the pursuit of maximum profits by American monopolies and the increase in consumption of coking coal due to a decrease in energy consumption led to the deviation of coal cargo flows from traditional sea regional routes and to the strengthening of the role of ocean routes in its transportation.

Scheme of maritime international coal cargo flows

From a commercial point of view, the import of American coal into England and West Germany does not stand up to criticism: instead of using national coal reserves, coal is imported from overseas, paid for in foreign currency. Instead of nearby Chinese coal, American coal is imported to Japan, which is about 3 times more expensive. Exorbitantly high prices place a great burden on the population of these countries. American anthracite in Western Europe, due to increased sea freight (up to $16 per ton), was sold for $50 - very high price for the population using anthracite mainly for home heating. These and other irrational transportations lead to the massive spread of counter transportation of coal and, ultimately, to the predatory waste of public funds and public labor.

European countries expect to receive heavy coals from the USA (40 million tons), as well as from neighboring European countries (25 million tons). Japan intends to meet its need for coking coal and metallurgical coke by importing it from the USA, Canada (20 million), Australia (10 million), China, Russia and other countries.

4. Give the physical-geographical and navigational characteristics of the Chukchi Sea. Features of navigation, main directions of cargo flows.

The Chukchi Sea is a marginal sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean off the coast of Asia and North America, washing the northern shores of the Chukotka Peninsula and the Northwestern coast of Alaska. In the west, the Long Strait connects with the East Siberian Sea, in the south - the Bering Strait with the Bering Sea. The northern border with the Arctic basin and the eastern border with the Beaufort Sea (along the meridian of Cape Barrow) are arbitrary and not morphologically expressed. The area of ​​the Chukchi Sea is 582 thousand km 2, the volume of water is 45.4 thousand km 3, the average depth is 77 m. Large bays: Kotzebue, Kolyuchinskaya Bay, Wrangel Islands, Herald and Kolyuchin. The Anguema, Kobuk, and Noatak rivers flow into the Chukchi Sea. The coastline is slightly indented. The shores are predominantly mountainous; in many places along the coast there are lagoons and alluvial spits.

The Chukchi Sea is located within the shelf. The 10 and 25 m isobaths come close to the mainland and follow the contours of the coastline. 56% of the bottom area is occupied by depths less than 50 meters, 6% - over 100 m. In the north, depths increase to 200 m or more (up to 1256 m). The shelves are crossed by 2 submarine canyons: Herald (approximately along 175˚ W) and Barrow (approximately parallel to the Alaska coast). There are several hills located in the northern part of the Chukchi Sea. Most of the bottom is covered with a thin layer of loose silt, sand and gravel. The position of the Chukchi Sea between Asia and North America and two oceans - the Arctic and the Pacific - determines the characteristics of its climate and hydrological regime. The polar night lasts for more than 70 days, starting from mid-November; from mid-May, the polar day lasts for 86 days. In winter, winds from the Northern component predominate, which are very stable in the south of the sea and especially in the Bering Strait.

The average wind speed is 6.2 m/s. In summer, in the southern part of the sea the winds of the southern quarter predominate, and in the northern part - weak winds of variable directions. The average temperature in February is -21…-27˚ (up to -47˚), in July 2.5˚…5.5˚ (up to 25˚).

At the end of October - November the sea is completely covered with ice. Ice destruction begins in May-June. In the summer, a warm current coming from the Bering Strait divides the ice cover of the Chukchi Sea into 2 massifs - Chukotka and Wrangel. The southern part of the sea usually becomes accessible for navigation in the 2nd half of July; the most difficult conditions for navigation are created by ice in the Long Strait.

The system of constant currents and ice drift is caused by the influx through the Bering Strait of about 30,000 km 3 /year of relatively salty waters supplied by the Bering Sea Current; in the Chukchi Sea they are divided into 3 branches - Alaskan, Herald, Longovskaya, spreading respectively along the coast of Alaska, to the northwest; east of Herald Island and into Longa Strait. In summer this current is warm (temperatures up to +12˚), in winter up to -1.8˚С. In general, during the year it brings about 27·10 15 kcal of heat, capable of melting ice on more than ⅓ of the sea area. Along the coast of the Chukotka Peninsula in the summer, and in the fall and winter, the cold Chukotka Current constantly exists, carrying cold summer and relatively warm winter (-1.6˚C) desalinated waters of the East Siberian Sea to the southwest and the Bering Strait. In winter, this current carries surface water and ice from the Chukchi Sea to the Bering Sea, forming the so-called Polar Current.

The fresh component of the water balance has little effect on water circulation; the river flow of its basin is about 73 km 3 /year, precipitation - 275 and evaporation 119 mm/year. An insignificant layer of runoff (13 cm) is one of the reasons that the surface waters of the Chukchi Sea differ from other Arctic seas in their high salinity: 30-32 ‰ (off the coast 24-27 ‰). The water temperature in summer is 4˚ in the west, 6˚ in the central part and 10-12˚ in the south. In winter, from the surface to the bottom, the water temperature is -1.6...-1.8˚, salinity 32.5-33.5‰.

Tides in the Chukchi Sea are regular, semi-diurnal, up to 0.9 m. Surge level fluctuations reach 1.4 m, and at Cape Barrow up to 3 m. During stormy winds in ice-free areas of the Chukchi Sea, wind waves up to 6.5 m high develop.

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FEDERAL FISHERIES AGENCY

FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

MURMANSK STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Department of Navigation

Test

Geography of waterways

Completed:

Mozhin V.D.

Murmansk

1. Geographical location of the seas

2. Boundaries of the seas

3. Main bays and islands

8. Characteristics of ports

9. Main commercial fish

References

1. Geographical position of the sea

The Black Sea is an inland sea of ​​the Atlantic Ocean. The Black Sea is located between 46°33" - 40°56" N. w. and 27°27"-41°42" E. d. Being part of the Atlantic Ocean basin, the Black Sea is connected to it in the south through the Mediterranean Sea by the Bosporus, Dardanelles and Gibraltar straits. In the northeast it is connected by the Kerch Strait to the Sea of ​​Azov. From the north, the Crimean Peninsula cuts deep into the sea.

2. Boundaries of the sea

The water border between Europe and Asia Minor runs along the surface of the Black Sea. The southern coast of the Black Sea, from the border of the Republic of Georgia to the mouth of the river. Rezovska is a territory of the Turkish Republic. Western coast of the Black Sea, from the mouth of the river. Rezovsk to a point with coordinates 43°44"N, 28°35"E. d., belongs to the Republic of Bulgaria, and further, to the north, to the border with Ukraine - to the Republic of Romania.

3. Main bays and islands

There are few islands in the Black Sea. The largest island is Dzharylgach, its area is 62 km². The remaining islands are much smaller, the largest being Berezanyi Zmeiny (both with an area of ​​less than 1 km²). Bays: Yagorlytsky, Tendrovsky, Dzharylgachsky, Karkinitsky, Kalamitsky and Feodosia in Ukraine, Varna and Burgas in Bulgaria, Sinop and Samsun - off the southern coast of the sea, in Turkey. In the north and northwest, at the confluence of rivers, estuaries overflow, and there are swampy and brackish areas. The total length of the coastline is 3400 km.

4. Characteristics of the bottom topography (maximum depth, average depth, soil, main banks, basins, depressions)

Maximum depth - 2242 m. Average depth 1315 m. The soil is sandy and silty. In the Black Sea, at a depth of more than 200 m, there are no inhabitants due to the high content of hydrogen sulfide (a colorless gas with the smell of rotten eggs and a sweetish taste). The entire bottom is a single basin. The Black Sea fills an isolated depression located between Southeast Europe and the Asia Minor peninsula.

5. Currents (warm, cold) and their characteristics (direction and speed)

In the Black Sea, one of the reasons causing currents is the difference in level between its northern and southern parts. Currents in the Black Sea are often disrupted by strong winds, which move significant masses of water and can noticeably change the water level, sometimes by half a meter.

The currents move in a circle counterclockwise. The maximum current speed in the Bosphorus Strait reaches 3 knots, the average is 1 knot.

6. Water temperature and salinity

geographical sea of ​​Azov relief

The water temperature on its surface is above 16 degrees Celsius for 6 months, 6-8 in winter, more than 25 in summer. The salinity of the Black Sea is not high compared to other seas and oceans. In the surface layer there are only 18 grams of salts per 1 thousand grams of water. For comparison, in Atlantic Ocean this is 35 grams of salt, and in the Red Sea it is 39 grams of salt.

7. Ice regime at different times of the year

Ice appears on the surface of the Black Sea in December (in the north) and melts in March. The thickness of the ice can reach half a meter.

The Sea of ​​Azov is located in the south of the European part of Russia, between 45°17` and 47°17` N. w. and 34°49` and 39°18` E. It is connected in its southern part with the Black Sea through the shallow Kerch Strait, and belongs to the Mediterranean Sea system of the Atlantic Ocean.

The Sea of ​​Azov is bordered in the north by Ukraine, in the east by Russia and in the west by the Crimean Peninsula. The Sea of ​​Azov is 340 km long and 135 km wide and has a surface area of ​​37,555 km.

On the territory of Ukraine there are Kazantip Bay, Arabat Bay in the southwest, Sivash Bay in the west, Obitochny Bay and Berdyansk Bay in the northwest. On the territory of Russia in the northeast is Taganrog Bay, in the east is Yasensky Bay, in the southeast is Temryuk Bay.

There are no large islands in the Sea of ​​Azov. There are only small low islands: Lyapina Island - near the coast east of the port of Mariupol, the artificial island of Turtle - on the approach to the port of Taganrog, Sandy Islands - on the approaches to the port of Yeisk.

Characteristics of the bottom topography (maximum depth, average depth, soil, main banks, basins, depressions).

The Sea of ​​Azov is shallow. Its maximum depth is 15 m. Depths in the open part of the sea are 10-13 m. The greatest depth at the entrance to the Taganrog Bay is 9.6 m, from the entrance towards the top of the bay the depths gradually decrease and at its top do not exceed 5 m. The average depth 6 meters.

The bottom of the sea is very flat, only shallows extend from the spits. The soil is mostly soft. The bottom of the central part of the sea is covered with soft silt. Rocky soil is found only near the southern coast of the sea. At depths of more than 8 m, the soil is silt, closer to the shore it is sand.

The Zhelezinskaya bank stretches along the eastern coast, and the Morskaya and Arabatskaya banks stretch along the western coast. Above the banks, the sea depth decreases to 3-5 meters.

The basin of the Azov Sea resembles a saucer, in the center of which the maximum depths are located.

The Sea of ​​Azov depression is a remnant of an older marine basin of the northern Black Sea region, within which the Crimean Peninsula was formed as a result of folding in the Middle Miocene.

Currents are warm, cold) and their characteristics (direction and speed).

Currents in the Sea of ​​Azov mainly depend on the wind. The great variability of currents is a consequence of the instability of the wind regime, the shallowness of the sea and its relatively small area. The main current is a circular current along the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov in a counterclockwise direction. The prevailing speed of currents in the Sea of ​​Azov is 0.2--0.4 knots, the maximum is 1--1.5 knots.

The climate of the Azov Sea, due to its small area, shallowness and small volume of water, is almost no different from the continental climate of the surrounding steppe spaces. The average monthly air temperature in January is --3--5°, but on some days it drops to -25° C. In July, the air over the sea warms up on average per month to 23--25°, cloudless weather prevails.

The salinity level of the Azov Sea is formed primarily under the influence of the abundant influx of river water (up to 12% of the water volume) and difficult water exchange with the Black Sea. The water contains very little salt 12 ppm in the northern part of the Azov Sea.

The water contains very little salt in the northern part of the Azov Sea. For this reason, the sea freezes easily. In winter, partial or complete freezing is possible, with ice being carried into the Black Sea through the Kerch Strait. Since the depth of the sea is small, and therefore the heat reserve is insignificant, ice conditions at sea can change sharply when weather conditions change, i.e. they are highly variable.

8. Characteristics of ports

Country - Great Britain.

Coordinates. Latitude 50°09" N, longitude 5°04" W.

Import: nitrates, fertilizers, coal, timber, grain, flour, brick, slate. Export: granite, stone.

Application hour - 04.57. The length of the mooring front is 215 m, the minimum depth at the wall in high water is 11, in low water - 5.5. All berths are equipped with cranes. There is a floating crane with a lifting capacity of 40 tons.

The main cargoes processed at the port are oil and coal from coastal mines. Explosive cargo is loaded from lighters or barges at St Juste Pool. A vessel with a gross tonnage of 24,200 registered entered the harbor. t. The port is connected to the country's railway network.

Characteristics of the port of Aberdeen.

Country - Great Britain. Region - Scotland.

Coordinates. Latitude 57°10"N, longitude 2°05"W.

Import: coal, iron, cement, salt, granite, timber, bones, esparto, wood pulp, phosphates, potash, slate, clay, cakes, fertilizers, grain, petroleum products, fish. Export: bunker coal, cattle, sheep, oats, granite, paper, canned food, salted fish, potatoes, fertilizers.

The applied port hour is 01.00. The magnitude of the spring tide is 3.9 m, the quadrature tide is 2.8 m; The prevailing winds are south-westerly, the most dangerous storms are off the coast from eastern directions.

There are railway tracks on the piers. The shipping fairway leading to the port and docks is formed by a 610 m long northern pier and a 305 m long southern breakwater from the shore. The width of the entrance to the port is 178 m, the entrance to Victoria Dock is about 20 m, the depth at full water is 7.6 m. A drawbridge is thrown over the entrance. The width of the passage from Victoria Dock to the Upper Dock is 20.4 m, the depth of the passage is 8.5 m in full spring water, it is crossed by a drawbridge. The port has many warehouses and cranes with a lifting capacity of up to 15 tons, and there are booms for lifting heavyweights up to 80 tons.

There is a device for loading coal, it is served by 2 electric cranes of 7 1 each with grabs, tippers, bunkers and loading chutes.

Characteristics of the port of Liverpool.

Country - Great Britain. Region - North West England.

Coordinates. Latitude 53°25"N, longitude 2°58"W.

Import: cotton, grain, wool, rubber. Export: products made of cotton paper, silk, wool, jute and flax.

Liverpool is the second largest port in England. Application hour is 11.28. The depth at the entrance is 7 m, at the bar - from 7.3 to 7.6 m. The magnitude of the spring tide is 8.2 m, the quadrature tide is 4.5 m. Western winds predominate, but northwestern, southwestern and southeastern; the latter blow from the coast and are usually accompanied by fog.

The water area of ​​the anchorage on the river. Merei, suitable for large ships, is about 814 hectares; In addition, there is an anchorage for small vessels with a water area of ​​about 200 hectares. The depth of the main fairway is 7 m in shallow spring water. The length of river berths outside the docks is 12.6 km. Vessels usually dock at a time interval starting 2 hours before high water and ending at high water.

At Gladstone Dock the threshold level of the entrance lock is 14.8 m below the mean high tide level of the spring tide, and the threshold of the new Waterloo entrance is 14 m below the same level; this makes it possible for vessels to enter and leave this dock system at any time of the day, with the exception of one or two hours at the lowest spring water. The zero depths in the tables below are the zero depths adopted for Liverpool Bay. The average high water level at spring tide is 8.7 m, and at quadrature tide 6.9 m above zero depth.

9. Main commercial fish

1) Pink salmon is the most numerous representative of the Pacific salmon genus. In the ocean, pink salmon are light blue in color. Upon returning to the spawning grounds, the color of the fish changes: it becomes pale gray at the back, the belly acquires a yellowish-white tint. Reaches a maximum length of 76 cm, weight 5.5 kg. Usually, pink salmon ranging from 32 to 64 cm in length go to rivers to spawn, with a predominance of individuals 38-59 cm in length and weighing 1.4-2.3 kg. The migration to rivers for spawning occurs in summer and autumn. Spawns at a depth of 0.2 to 1.0 meters. The main fishing areas for pink salmon are the eastern coast of Sakhalin (especially its southern part), Aniva Bay (its western coast) and the northwestern coast of the island. Iturup, where the bulk of pink salmon is caught.

2) Chum salmon is one of the most widespread and widespread species of anadromous fish of the salmon family. During reproduction, it acquires a nuptial plumage, which is more pronounced in males. There are summer and autumn forms of fish. Chum salmon is larger than pink salmon, its length is usually 50-80 cm, and its weight is from 1.5 to 6.5 kg. Maximum body length is 100 cm, weight is 15.9 kg. Migratory fish, spawns once in its life, and dies after spawning. The depth of laying eggs ranges from 20 to 40 cm. Chum salmon are caught in Terpeniya Bay (in the pre-estuary space of the Poronai River) summer chum salmon are caught. In all other areas, with the exception of Rybnovsky, only autumn chum salmon are caught. In Northern Sakhalin, the main fishing center for autumn chum salmon is the Rybnovsky district (Amur estuary). In the area of ​​the northern Kuril Islands, chum salmon is caught, passing into the rivers of Western Kamchatka.

3) Sockeye salmon is a fish of the salmon family. The scales of sockeye salmon on the sides of the body are silvery, the back is bluish or greenish. During the spawning period, the back and sides become red, the head and fins turn green. In the sea, it also differs from other salmon in the bright red color of its flesh. In addition, there are no spots on the sockeye salmon’s body and fins. Representatives of this species reach a length of 80 cm, weight is usually 1.5-3.5 kg, maximum weight is 7.7 kg. Its entry into rivers usually begins in May and continues until the end of July. The depth of laying eggs in the ground ranges from 15 to 45 cm from the bottom surface. The fishery is carried out in Kamchatka.

4) Coho salmon is an anadromous species of fish of the salmon family. Coho salmon have a thick head, a wide forehead, and a very short, high caudal peduncle. At sea and when entering rivers, its scales are silvery and shiny. Coho salmon reaches a length of up to 88 cm and a weight of 6.5 kg, the average length of commercial coho salmon in Kamchatka is 60 cm and an average weight of 3.4-3.5 kg. Spawning continues from late September to December in non-freezing springs. Females lay eggs in the ground to a depth of 10-30 cm. The fishery to the south is widespread along the entire coast of the Bering Sea, along the shores of Kamchatka, off the Okhotsk-Japanese coast, on Sakhalin (especially the Tym River).

5) Chinook salmon is a widespread species of anodromous fish of the salmon family. The back, dorsal and caudal fins are covered with small roundish black spots. Small chinook salmon can be confused with ski salmon, but chinook salmon are characterized by black gums on the lower jaw, and small dark spots cover not only its back and caudal peduncle, but also both blades of the caudal fin. The average size of running Chinook salmon is 90 cm. In the Kamchatka Territory, the species reaches a length of 180 cm or even more. A case of Chinook salmon weighing 61.2 kg was recorded. Spawns in June - August, in the rivers of North America - also in autumn and winter. For spawning, Chinook salmon choose fast currents and rather deep places (up to 1-1.5 m). Fishing is carried out in the Bering Sea and Kamchatka.

References

1. Pankova S.A., Logvinenko, I.A. Pankov. “Guide to the underwater life of the Black Sea.” Krasnodar, 2000 - popular, illustrated book.

2. A.M. Bronfman and E.P. Khlebnikov's book "The Sea of ​​Azov".

3. V. Kirillov book “Small Fisherman’s Encyclopedia”.

4. M.S. Kalugin book "Fisherman's Handbook".

5. Team book “Animal World. Encyclopedia. Volume 3 - Pisces."

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In the 18th century There have been significant quantitative and qualitative changes in the development of routes and means of communication. The development of trade, the growth of the domestic market, and the expansion of international exchange drew ever new regions and groups of people into mutual contacts. At the same time, many problems arose and the complexity and sometimes impossibility of solving them in Russia of that era was revealed; a number of problems remained addressed to subsequent generations.

In a country of endless expanses, distances of thousands of miles, dense forests, boundless plains and steppes, numerous rivers and swamps, a huge variety of climates and extreme unevenness of settlement, solving transport issues has always been a very difficult task. The lack of roads and numerous difficulties along the way prevented the growth of connections between individual regions, and, along with other reasons, determined their isolation.

At the same time, economic factors urgently required the establishment of a unified state transport network of the country, free from internal customs. Throughout the 18th century, traditional water and land roads lengthened, moved into new areas, were enriched with branches and new routes, and gradually connected with each other.

The development of transport was a condition and means of spreading culture. Roads and rivers were the main arteries along which civilization spread and its achievements were exchanged. It is no coincidence that since time immemorial, people have built cities and villages along roads and along river banks. Advances in science, technology, education, and various areas of artistic creativity went hand in hand with the development of communications.

Transport was an integral part of the people's life: it accompanied ceremonies of a public and personal nature: coronations, meetings of ambassadors, celebrations of victories of the army and navy. Neither weddings, nor funerals, nor holiday celebrations, nor entertainment, nor sports competitions took place without sleighs and carts. National rituals of meeting and seeing off, road customs and traditions developed.

The increase in population mobility contributed to changes in personality psychology. Already from the second half of the 17th century, an increasingly prominent position in society was occupied by energetic, active, sociable people, quick to react, and easy-going 1 . Peter I and his closest associates were the brightest in the gallery of such characters. A keen interest in the world, broad-mindedness, curiosity and the need for communication, a love of travel as a source of new knowledge - all these traits, which were encountered at the beginning of the century as a rare exception, by the end of the century were becoming widespread and recognized among different strata of society.

As in the previous period, the rivers remained in the 18th century. the main transport routes of the country. Their total length was more than 100 thousand versts, and almost 1/3 were navigable. The direction of the main waterways was determined by the flow of large rivers. These are the Northern Dvina, Western Dvina, Neva, Volkhov, Dnieper, Dniester. Don, Volga with their numerous tributaries. The most important transport routes passed through their basins. Overland portages connected one basin to another. The great rivers of Siberia - the Ob, Yenisei, Lena - flowed from south to north, and the main transport route connecting Siberia with European Russia ran from west to east. Therefore, communication along their tributaries acquired particular importance.

Three main tasks faced the country at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. in relation to waterways: access to sea coasts, improvement of navigation conditions on rivers and connection of river basins with artificial canals. All of them were resolved with varying degrees of success throughout the 18th century.

Already by the end of the 17th century. include the first attempts to study rivers in order to improve navigation conditions. In the 18th century Research and measurements of the Baltic, Black, Azov and Caspian seas were carried out, atlases and navigational maps were compiled, on which the contours of the coasts, coastal depths were marked, shoals were marked, in some cases ship routes were outlined and anchorages were indicated. Similar work was carried out on rivers and lakes. Maps of the most important rivers of the country were compiled and published, indicating shallows, rapids, depths, rifts, bank relief, coastal towpath for barge haulers and indicating the direction of currents. For some rivers, in the margins of the atlases, a description was given of “vessels of various ranks used on a given river, indicating the extent of their cargo and the number of working people” 2. Maps of communication on the most important rivers and water systems were created with a description of the economic conditions of navigation on these communications.

The Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences, created in 1739, was engaged in the study of rivers, lakes and seas. M. V. Lomonosov was actively interested in these issues. In a note on the “Economic Lexicon of Russian Products,” compiled in 1763, he wrote about the need to create maps on which “to put icons of ships along the rivers, which sail where, for example, a boat, a barge, a plow, a romanovka or some others. .. Summer droughts, the connection of peaks, piers, portages, rapids are designated along the rivers with special signs, which are also popularly fictitious” 3. In the 60s XVIII century The question of the management of waterways was raised before the government by a member of the Commerce Commission II. E. Muravyov in the report “Discourse on Commerce”. He rightly pointed out the need to have a geographical description of the most important rivers of Russia, “for without knowing it, it is impossible to talk about the communication of each separately” 4 .

Significant work in this direction was carried out during the general surveying period. The research results made it possible at the very beginning of the 19th century. draw up a description of the waterways of the European part of the country, containing a brief description of navigation conditions 5. However, the work on studying the waterways was far from complete.

The exploration of waterways went in parallel with practical measures to improve navigation. The first attempts in this direction were already made by Peter I. Work was carried out to deepen and clear river beds and build canals. In the second quarter of the 18th century. Peter's undertakings were practically suspended.

However, since the 60s. century, the government was again forced to deal with the problems of water transport. They are discussed in the Commission on Commerce and are reflected in numerous decrees of the Senate.

In 1784, a decree was adopted regulating work to improve navigation on rivers, measure fairways and install protective signs on shallows. It, in particular, said: “In order to avert disasters that befall ships on various rivers sailing... to prescribe to the governor-general and rulers that each of them in the provinces entrusted to him immediately orders all navigable rivers flowing in them , measure, and where shoals are found, mark them as milestones for the safety of water navigation” 6. Further, it was the duty of zemstvo police officers to carry out such measurements annually, monitor the safety of signs on shoals and rifts, and transfer them, if necessary, to new places.

Despite the measures taken to improve navigation and even legislative orders in this regard, many rivers continued to remain extremely inconvenient for the passage of ships, were replete with shoals, rapids, riffles and caused a lot of trouble to travelers, pilots and navigators. The beds of many rivers were navigable only during the spring flood, and became very shallow in the summer. Caravans of ships accumulated on shallow sections of the route. Loads had to be transferred to smaller ships - pause. Travelers and shipowners constantly complained about the difficulties of navigation, due to which ships suffered accidents and wrecks.

The main waterway of European Russia, the Volga, especially in the upper part, had many shoals and riffles. So, in the 60s. XVIII century only on the section of the route from the confluence of Selizharovka to Tver there were 17 rocky rifts, from Selizharovka to Rybinsk - about 50 shoals and rifts, from Rybinsk to the borders of the Saratov province - 35 7 . Floated along the Volga in the 18th century. Cornelius de Bruin noted that even in the lower reaches of the Volga he saw many ships that were wrecked and stranded on shallows 8 . The Dnieper, Kama, Chusovaya, and many Siberian rivers, especially the Angara, remained difficult for navigation.

Traveled along the Angara in the 18th century. An anonymous author writes about the dangerous rapids on this river, which required great skill from the navigators. There were frequent wrecks on Chusovaya, along which large caravans with mining cargo from the Urals moved. In the 80s over 5 years, more than 80 metal mines perished here. The Dnieper rapids were also a serious obstacle to navigation. The shallow and stormy Lake Ladoga was unsuitable for sailing fragile wooden ships. In some cases, these obstacles could only be overcome by raising the water level in the rivers with locks and building bypass canals.

The initiator of the construction of canals in Russia was Peter I. He sought to establish connections between individual regions of the country, primarily between the new capital and the central regions, between inland Russia and the sea coasts. The creation of a whole system of state artificial waterways in Russia began earlier than in other countries 9 . Ultimately, the solution to this problem, along with the creation of an all-Russian system of land roads, was to become a means of ensuring national unity. The water system of European Russia was designed to overcome not only the disunity of the internal regions, but also to connect the country with the outside world - through the Baltic with Europe, through the Caspian with Asia. Russia would thus act as a mediator between East and West and would be drawn into international economic and cultural ties.

The Volga-Don and Ivanovo canals were supposed to connect the central part of European Russia with the Azov and Black Seas, the Vyshnevolotsk and Dvina systems were supposed to connect the country with the Baltic. Through the Volga, artificial water communications would connect the Baltic and Caspian seas. These were the broad plans, the partial implementation of which began in the first quarter of the 18th century. Channel construction reflected the features of the era of Peter the Great’s reforms: clear, urgent, large tasks and extremely meager technical capabilities and conditions for their implementation. It was this contradiction that gave particular tension to the entire atmosphere of transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century. The Volga-Don Canal, begun in 1697, was not completed, since all the country’s forces were diverted to the fight for the Baltic. At the beginning of the 18th century. They began to build the Ivanovo Canal between the Oka and Don. They built 33 locks and stopped work. Construction of the Moscow-Volga canal began. However, in reality, only one of these great plans was completed during the reign of Peter I - the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk waterway, which connected the Baltic coast with the Volga basin. The system was difficult to create and could not provide full connections between these areas due to the one-way nature of the movement. Only the commissioning of the Mariinskaya and Tikhvinskaya; water systems at the beginning of the 19th century. was able to overcome these shortcomings.

The construction of the Vyshnevolotsk system began in 1702. Through the Tvertsa, Tsna, Volkhov rivers, a number of lakes and artificial canals, the Volga basin was connected with the Neva River basin. The total length of the system was 1324 versts 10. Work on its construction was carried out without sufficient technical guidance, with the forced labor of more than 10 thousand people brought here from different provinces. The water level was maintained using locks, reservoirs and other hydraulic structures. In the spring of 1709, navigation was opened along the new waterway. The system had many shortcomings: imperfect hydraulic structures and locks, shallow water in some sections of the route, fragility of all buildings, lack of technical supervision over operation, and finally, the one-way nature of the movement: ships that arrived in St. Petersburg did not return back, but were sold there for scrap.

In 1718, a decision was made to build a bypass canal around Lake Ladoga. Peter I took personal part in its design. The creation of the canal was carried out with the same effort as the Vyshnevolotsk system, millions of rubles were spent, huge masses of people from all over the country were involved in construction work. The Ladoga Canal came into operation in the early 30s.

The fate of the country's first artificial water system was not easy. By the end of the second decade of the 18th century. it fell into disrepair: the sluices rotted and collapsed, the water closure was supported by boards, which were covered with matting and straw. In 1718, an entire spring caravan was swept away by water. A radical reconstruction of the system was necessary. It was taken into his hands by the outstanding innovative hydraulic engineer and capable organizer M.I. Serdyukov. In 1719, he was given the maintenance of the Tveretskaya canal and locks and was allowed to carry out work in accordance with his reports and drawings 11. The main task was to provide a sufficient amount of water for the entire navigation period. Regulating reservoirs were built, many locks and canals were repaired, and an original solution was developed for establishing navigation through the Borovitsky rapids. In the middle of the 18th century. up to 12 million poods of cargo were transported annually through the Vyshnevolotsk system 12 .

However, the system of exploitation of this entire water route, built on the principle of feudal farming, could not but lead to stagnation. Despite the energy and organizational talent of M.I. Serdyukov, he failed to restore order. There was not enough money for repairs. The owner constantly complained about the willfulness of merchants and shipowners on canals and locks. Merchants constantly complained about the difficulties of navigation. The downtime of caravans increased. Sometimes we had to wait 2-3 weeks for the required water level.

In 1774, the system was transferred to the state with payment to the Serdyukov family of 176 thousand rubles in three terms. The transfer of the Vyshnevolotsk route to the state department allowed for a number of significant technical improvements: new canals were dug (Velyevsky - from Lake Velye to Lake Maly Seliger, Siversov bypass canal near Lake Ilmen, canals deepening the Meta bed, and others), reconstruction of locks and replacement wooden and stone ones, several new reservoirs were created, raising the water level in the system, and some rapids were cleared. All this not only preserved the Vyshnevolotsk system’s status as the most important waterway in Russia, but also ensured its intensive functioning 13 .

The idea of ​​​​creating other waterways connecting St. Petersburg with the center of the country was also expressed by Peter I. However, the implementation of these plans became possible only a century later. To ensure the increasing cargo flow to St. Petersburg, two more water systems were created: Mariinskaya in 1803 and Tikhvinskaya in 1809. The peculiarity of all these systems was that they could not be used by large vessels with a large carrying capacity and deep draft, rising from Nizhnyaya and the Middle Volga. Therefore, a need arose for transshipment points where cargo from large ships would be reloaded onto small ones. In the 18th century Rybinsk became the most important transshipment city on the Volga. All three large water systems began here and massive loading of ships took place, since above Rybinsk the Volga became shallow.

Among other, less significant, artificial water structures of the 18th century. It is necessary to note the beginning of the creation of canals between the Neman and the Western Dvina, the Neman and Pripyat, the Dnieper-Bug water system, the North Catherine Canal for connecting the Kama and Vychegda basins, a canal from St. Petersburg to Kotlin Island and some others. This created the prerequisites for the formation of regional water transport systems covering the entire country.

Russia's access to the sea coasts raised the question of creating ports and harbors at the mouths of large rivers. Since the founding of St. Petersburg, construction of a harbor in the new capital has been underway. In the second half of the century, hydraulic engineering work was carried out in the port of Riga, which was inconvenient due to the shallow waters of the Western Dvina. There the bottom was deepened and cleared, dams were created to raise the water level, similar work was carried out in Narva, Libau, and Revel. At the end of the 18th century. in connection with the annexation of the Black Sea region, several harbors were founded in convenient areas of this coast: Kherson, Sevastopol, Feodosia, Nikolaev, Taganrog, Odessa.

The transformation of Russia into a maritime power radically influenced the nature of Russian shipbuilding. At the origins of the creation of the Russian fleet is Peter I, who devoted a significant part of his energy and will to this matter. Peter remained faithful to his passion for shipbuilding from his early youth until the last years of his life. “He put shipbuilding skills above all else. No state business could hold him back when the opportunity presented itself to work as an ax in a shipyard. Until his later years, when he was in St. Petersburg, he never let a day pass without stopping for two hours at the Admiralty. And he achieved great skill in this matter: his contemporaries considered him the best shipwright in Russia. He was not only a keen observer and an experienced leader in the construction of the ship: he himself could work the ship from the foundation to all the technical details of its finishing. He was proud of his skill in this skill and spared neither money nor effort to spread it in Russia” 14.

New shipyards are being built in Voronezh, Arkhangelsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan and other cities. The main shipyard of the country, St. Petersburg, was founded in 1704. The Admiralty was a huge shipbuilding enterprise at that time, consisting of 17 boathouses, numerous workshops, forges, barns, administrative and office premises. The latest technical achievements in shipbuilding were used here, improvements and mechanisms used in the construction of ships were created 15.

The Admiralty was in charge of the Galerny Yard and the Particular Shipyard on the Fontanka. These shipyards functioned most intensively in the first quarter of the 18th century, when the number of workers at them reached 10 thousand. 16 There were “the kindest and best craftsmen” gathered from various shipbuilding centers of the country, master shipbuilders from foreign countries. The Admiralty Shipyard concentrated the achievements of foreign shipbuilding and Russian traditions.

When designing and building large military vessels, no small attention was paid to their decorative design. Shipwrights were fluent in drawing, composition, wood carving techniques, and were artistically gifted people. That is why ships of the 18th century. are perceived as monuments of applied art. The main decoration of the ships was wood carving. It was placed on the plane of the stern, ran along the sides, and decorated the bow. Covered with gold, silver and bright paint of different colors, it gave the ship an exceptionally elegant and festive look. In a certain sense, ship carving contributed to the development of Russian sculpture. Jacob Shtelin wrote about this: “In the time of Peter the Great, his passion - the art of shipbuilding - gave sculpture the opportunity to come into use... The planchers of his warships, like the bows, should have been decorated with carvings, like English and Dutch warships... His yachts were as magnificently decorated with gilded carvings as was then possible." 17 Peter hired foreign sculptors to decorate the ships, and then Russian master carvers were also trained.

However, all these achievements concerned primarily the navy. The construction of commercial and transport ships was carried out mainly by private individuals. Peter dreamed of creating a state merchant fleet in Russia, but in the 18th century. this was not possible.

The new shipbuilding techniques that Peter introduced at the most advanced shipyards of the country, he sought to spread throughout the country as widely as possible. Beginning of the 18th century is replete with a huge number of decrees and orders relating to shipbuilding. Since 1715, a series of decrees have been issued on the construction of ships in a “new manner”. Traditionally, they were built using handicraft methods “by eye”, without any drawings or plans, were short-lived, usually served only navigation and were distinguished by the simplest and cheapest construction. Peter led a decisive struggle against “old-fashioned” shipbuilding. In November 1715, a decree was issued to the governors of all shipping and shipbuilding provinces, prohibiting the construction of ships in the old way. “And if anyone violates this decree and begins to make ships with brackets in the same manner as before, and for the first offense they will be fined 200 rubles for each ship, and for the other they will take all their belongings and be sent to Siberia for 10 years” 18.

The reform met with stubborn local resistance. The point was not only the force of habit and conservatism of the shipbuilders, but the lack of experience, leadership, trained personnel, and finally the material and technical base for the mass dissemination of this undertaking.

First quarter of the 18th century was marked by the appearance of a large number of new types and new names of ships. Dutch designs were widely distributed: various gallots, shmaks, flutes, pramas, everses, etc. Most of these ships in their pure form did not take root in Russia, but they “served as a canvas for the creation of our own local ship types” 19 . The most widespread is the gallot - a flat-bottomed boat-shaped vessel with a blunt bow, single-deck, shallow landing, with one mast. Its carrying capacity was up to 10 thousand pounds.

Most of the ships of that time belonged to the baroque type. They had a length of about 15 fathoms, a width of up to 4 fathoms and a height of up to 2 fathoms. When landing at 12-15 inches, their carrying capacity was up to 8 thousand pounds. Since 1718, the construction of sailing ships of a new type began - raskiv. They were easy to move, required little labor and were very fast. Large Volga barks had a carrying capacity of up to 25 thousand pounds.

XVIII century was distinguished by a great variety and diversity of ships, which received their names based on structural features or the place of construction. These are pauzki, zavozni, geese, kladushki, rooks, kosova, belyany, mokshana, galleys, kayuks, shitiki, doshchaniki, mezheumki, vyshnevoloki, belozerki, tikhvinki, romanovki, klyazmenki, suryaks and many others. All this variety of species is fully consistent with the still not fully overcome diversity of local conditions and local style of individual shipbuilding regions of the country, which is only becoming a single national whole. At the same time, taking into account advanced foreign experience in shipbuilding did not exclude the originality of designs of water transport facilities in different regions of Russia. On the contrary, such originality preserved the best, river-tested folk traditions. In fact, shipbuilding was carried out everywhere where navigable rivers existed. With the growth of cargo flows and increased traffic intensity, the volume of shipbuilding increased. For a number of regions it became the most important industry, in which various categories of the population were employed: merchants, townspeople, peasants.

“In Russia there were no large specialized shipyards for the construction of merchant river fleet vessels. The construction of all river vessels, as well as most coastal shipping vessels, was primarily carried out by peasants living in coastal settlements close to the places where cargo flows were formed” 20.

In the 80s in accordance with the city regulations of 1785, merchants were allowed to participate in shipbuilding; in 1800, nobles received this right.

Many merchants were involved in organizing shipbuilding and purchasing ships, concentrating entire flotillas in their hands. Thus, during the navigation of 1771, the Rybinsk merchant Popov had at his disposal up to 200 barges 21 .

However, the bulk of the merchant fleet was created by peasants and townspeople of commercial and industrial settlements and cities. By the end of the century, there were at least 30 thousand such shipbuilders 22.

The wide scope of shipbuilding in Russia, accompanied by the destruction of thousands of barges annually on the most important waterway - the Vyshnevolotskaya - led to massive deforestation along the rivers. This became so widespread that in a number of places, special decrees designated protected areas where logging by private shipbuilders was prohibited.

The method of moving ships was based primarily on manual labor. The main workers in water transport were barge haulers. Whenever possible, wind power and river currents were used. Only at the end of the century did horse-drawn vehicles appear, which were far from displacing barge labor from water transport. Huge masses of people were engaged in the barge fishing industry. According to N.I. Pavlenko’s calculations, in the middle of the 18th century. About 100 thousand ship workers were employed in river transport, and at the end of the century - up to 200 thousand. 23 F. N. Rodin considers these data to be underestimated by almost two times 24. The working and living conditions of barge haulers were extremely difficult. Beggarly wages, backbreaking exhausting labor, arbitrariness of shipowners, half-starved existence, diseases, epidemics crippled people physically and mentally.

Along with the widespread use of workers in water transport performing primitive physical work, the need for more highly qualified people, primarily pilots, is constantly growing. On the Vyshnevolotsk system in the middle of the 18th century. there were more than 2,500 experienced pilots 25. The success of caravans passing through dangerous places depended on their skill. The work of a pilot required not only excellent knowledge of the route, but also courage and bravery. It is no coincidence that the chief commander of the Borovitsky rapids reported to the Senate in 1768 that the pilots were “free people and not dependent on any authorities.” In the second half of the 18th century. The treasury began to buy out peasants engaged in pilotage 26.

The primitive technology of ship movement and constant stops along the way were the reason for the extremely slow movement of transport. So, from the Urals to St. Petersburg, caravans of ships with iron traveled 13-18 months, from Nizhny Novgorod to Ladoga ships with flour sailed 5.5 months, from the Kama mouth to Kolomna - 75 days, from Rybinsk to Tver - 20 days, etc. 27.

Hundreds of thousands of shipworkers worked on river transport, but there were not enough workers. By the middle of the 18th century. These include the first attempts to use machine-powered ships. They were equipped with simple mechanisms that were driven by workers. In the 50s 40 such ships were built, transporting salt from Nizhny Novgorod. At the end of the century, the talented Russian inventor I.P. Kulibin was engaged in new designs of water vessels. He developed a project for a self-propelled vessel using the power of river flow to propel ships against the current. I.P. Kulibin worked a lot on the invention of self-propelled ships with horse-drawn vehicles. He designed such a machine with an engine based on the principle of an endless chain. The improvement of the horse-drawn vehicle led the author to the idea of ​​using a steam engine for water transport. A lot of work was done by the inventor to develop towing techniques. At the same time, I.P. Kulibin had to consider some problems of the theory of shipbuilding. At the same time, issues of operating new machines on waterways and creating anchor stations on rivers were developed. I.P. Kulibin independently completed all the drawings for his devices, sought the publication and distribution of his works, and their practical application. However, the creative thought of a talented mechanic did not find a place under the conditions of the feudal-serf system. His inventions did not meet with support, and he himself died in poverty and disgrace.

A system for managing and organizing traffic on waterways slowly took shape. One of the first decrees concerning traffic rules dates back to 1759. It established the procedure for navigation on the Volga, Tvertsa and other rivers, the rules for unloading for the winter quarters and loading of goods and supplies, ordered not to block river mouths, not to interfere with the passage of ships, etc. 28 An important event facilitating traffic on internal roads was the abolition of customs duties in the country. The act regulating water transport was the “Charter of Merchant Water Transport” adopted in 1781. It became the basis for subsequent legislation in the field of river transport. Having consolidated the established norms of navigation, taking into account past legislation, the “Charter” introduced a number of new provisions: the procedure for registering merchant ships was established, the training of certified navigators began, the responsibilities of the ship’s captain (ship commander), helmsman (navigator), crew members and other “navigators” were defined. , a procedure for concluding transactions in shipping was established, insurance and convoy of ships were introduced, measures were provided in case of accidents, etc. 29 But the adoption of legislative acts has not yet ensured real order in water transport. Violations of shipping regulations were commonplace and widespread. Security considerations forced merchants, shipowners and travelers to unite in large caravans of several dozen ships.

In the 18th century A unified system for managing waterways and transport was just taking shape. It grew out of institutions that were in charge of one of the main water communications of the country - the Vyshnevolotsk system. Since the main part of this route passed through the Novgorod province, the Novgorod governor dealt with issues related to its reconstruction and operation. Since November 1773, he began to simultaneously be called “director of water communications.” Gradually, a staff began to form under the director. In 1782, water communications were divided into two types according to the degree of readiness for operation - completed and unfinished. The former remained under the authority of the governor, the latter were transferred to the disposal of the Corps of Water Architects and Hydraulics30 30. In 1797, the management of all water communications in Russia was entrusted to the Novgorod governor L. E. Sivers 31. A few months later, in February 1798, the Department of Water Communications was established. Its jurisdiction included previously existing institutions: the Office of the Ladoga Canal Expedition, the Office of the Vyshnevolotsky Separation Point, the main commanders of the Borovitsky rapids and others, as well as newly emerged ones: shipping reprisals, supervisors of navigation at certain distances. In large river ports, exchanges were organized that were in charge of shipping and trade. In 1809, the Main Directorate of Communications was created. Thus, by the beginning of the 19th century. centralized management of this area is emerging public life.

The development of water transport had a certain influence on education, technical and natural sciences, printing, etc. From the beginning of the 18th century. Trips of Russian people abroad to become familiar with shipbuilding became regular. It was at the first shipyards that primary schools were created to teach the basics of science. The first such school was organized for craftsmen and carpenters at the Voronezh shipyard. Then they arose in St. Petersburg, Revel, Kronstadt and other cities 32. Special educational institutions were opened: aviation and navigation schools, a maritime academy. Domestic and translated manuals on shipbuilding, ship navigation and hydraulic engineering are published. In 1708, the first book on communications and signaling, “General Signals Supervised in the Fleet,” was published in Moscow. It describes more than 100 signals used in the case of throwing, raising an anchor, when moving during fog, at night, etc. The wide scope of canal construction work necessitated the publication of books on hydraulic engineering. In 1708, the “Book on methods for creating free flow of rivers” was published. It contained recommendations on the construction of canals and locks, deepening and straightening river beds, techniques for guiding ships through rapids and shoals, etc. In 1724, a complete course of safe navigation for the sailing fleet was published, in the early 20s. - “Regulations for skippers”, containing technical rules mandatory for merchant ships 33. The outstanding mathematician L. Euler wrote the book “Complete speculation on the structure and navigation of ships, composed for the benefit of students of navigation.” A lot of books on navigation and navigation are published, translated from foreign languages. Although most of these manuals concerned the navy, they had a significant influence on the development of shipping in general.

Land roads formed part of the country's overall transport network and were connected to waterways. Portages were a necessary link in many transport routes. Often overland routes passed in winter along the beds of freezing rivers. Many roads ran along river communications. Finally, there was practically no land route that did not cross several rivers. At the same time, land roads still had a certain independence. In the 18th century Despite the continuous increase in the role and importance of these routes, they remained secondary in comparison with water transport - cheaper, more convenient, and more cargo-intensive.

The main network of land routes that had developed in the previous period, especially in the central and northern parts of European Russia, survived into the 18th century. Moscow has historically been a center of roads. Nine large radial routes began from Moscow: to Yaroslavl, Vologda and Kholmogory to Arkhangelsk; from Yaroslavl east through Sol Vychegda to the Urals and Siberia; to Vladimir and Nizhny Novgorod along the Volga to Astrakhan; to Kolomna to Ryazan; to Serpukhov, Tula and Kursk, further to the south; to Kaluga to Kyiv; to Volokolamsk - Rzhev; to Mozhaisk and Vyazma to Smolensk; to Tver to Novgorod; finally, on Dmitrov and Kashin to Ustyuzhna 34.

Emerging in an earlier period, these roads in the 18th century. increased their length. They connected Moscow with the north of the country, the southern and southwestern Black Sea regions, the Baltic states, Europe, Central Asia and Siberia. The road book, compiled by V. G. Ruban at the end of the century, gives an idea of ​​the most important land routes of the country. It went through several editions and was very popular among travelers 35. It lists about 400 important transport routes, indicating intermediate stations and the distances between them. Some tracts had a length of several hundred and even thousands of miles. By the end of the century, the following tracts acquired the most important administrative, political and economic significance: Moscow-Petersburg (1033 miles long), running through Tver and Novgorod. Its continuation was the path through Vyborg to the Swedish borders. Litovsky tract (Moscow - Smolensk - Brest-Litovsky - 1064 versts), Kyiv (1295 versts) and Belgorod (1382 versts) tracts; Voronezh - from Moscow to Mozdok (1723 versts), Astrakhan (Moscow - Tambov - Kizlyar - Mozdok - 1972 versts), Arkhangelsk (Moscow - Yaroslavl - Vologda - Kholmogory - Arkhangelsk - Onega - Kola - 2290.5 versts), Siberian - from Moscow through Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan, Perm and further to Siberia. In total, the length of all these tracts with large side branches reached 15,788 versts 36 . In addition to the main roads, there were many local communication routes.

Among the new roads that arose in the 18th century, we should first of all note the St. Petersburg-Moscow road, which became one of the main transport routes of the country. A lot of attention was paid to the construction of this road. Peter I began to lay a direct route between the capitals. From the very beginning of this enterprise, many difficulties arose: numerous swamps, swamps, an abundance of forests, etc. The road had to have a hard surface, logs were laid in its foundation, and clay was placed on them. However, frequent rains turned such soil into impassable mud. Despite significant efforts, the road throughout the 18th century. was never put in order.

One of the most well-maintained was the road from St. Petersburg to Tsarskoe Selo. This is due to its special privileged position and very short extent. It was all paved with stone, had roadside ditches for water drainage, marble milestones, and drinking troughs for horses. In autumn it was illuminated by 1100 lanterns. In the early 20s. Another paved road is being built: Petersburgsko-Narvskaya.

Growing connections with Siberia required improvement of Siberian routes. Since the 20s the construction of the main Siberian road - the Moscow-Siberian tract - began. Outposts, winter huts and stations are organized there. The government widely recruited migrant peasants for the construction and operation of this tract. Initially it was used only for government couriers and government cargo.

The decree on the construction of the world's longest Siberian tract was issued by the Senate on March 16, 1733 in connection with the start of the second Kamchatka expedition. Initially, it was necessary to establish regular, once a month, postal communication between the Eastern Siberian cities with Tobolsk and further with St. Petersburg, “to paint a road, on a yoke chip” camps, from which to carry mail in summer and winter” 37 . Over the course of several decades, this tract was populated, developed, and finally formed by the 80s. XVIII century A. N. Radishchev called it “the great passage through Siberia.”

For the end of the XVII-XVIII centuries. characteristic of the emergence of a large number of roads and highways for any specific temporary need associated with military operations, economic, political, diplomatic and other needs of the government. Such paths were created on a quick fix and were abandoned just as quickly. An example is the road to Azov, which began to be built in connection with the Azov campaigns, but was left unfinished.

The state of road construction was reflected in the orders of deputies to the Statutory Commission from the Office of the Construction of State Roads. The general conclusion sounded quite categorical: “The present method of building and maintaining state roads is not only insufficient, but also completely incapable” 38. First of all, until the end of the century it remained unclear which roads of the country should be considered state roads and which, therefore, should be built under the control of the government and maintained by its organs. The office proposed to consider the following roads as state roads: from St. Petersburg-1). to Moscow, 2). to Riga, 3). to Vyborg and further to the Swedish borders, 4).to Pskov, 5). to Arkhangelsk; from Moscow - 1). to Arkhangelsk, 2). to Smolensk, 3). to Kyiv, 4). to Siberia to Tobolsk and further, 5).to Orenburg, 6). to the fortress of St. Dmitry Rostovsky (in the lower reaches of the Don), 7). to Kizlyar 39.

There was no specific system in organizing the construction and repair of roads. Usually these works were carried out as road labor by the local population. This method was, of course, ineffective, not to mention the hardships it brought to the population. The road construction technique was reduced to the construction of fascia pavements 40. The fascines were laid in several rows and covered with earth. Then logs were placed on them and covered with earth again. This method was not very convenient, since the fascines rotted, the wooden platform was destroyed and the roadway turned into mud from the rains. There were attempts to replace the fascines with sandy soil or logs, but this method did not produce significant results. By the 40s. XVIII century include proposals to replace fascines with stone pavements (paving streets with stone has been used in St. Petersburg and Moscow since the beginning of the century). However, this proposal was not adopted by the Senate 41.

Only in the 80s. Stone paving of roads is becoming more widespread. Separate sections of the Moscow-Petersburg and Narva roads, some roads in the Novgorod province and other areas were covered with stone. Since the 60-70s. XVIII century Due to increasing freight flows and increasing traffic intensity, improving road construction is becoming increasingly necessary. A number of projects are emerging to improve road infrastructure in the country and use the experience of foreign countries. One of these projects was a note from Senator N. E. Muravyov to the Senate in 1763. It noted: “Bringing roads into the best possible condition is not only necessary for commerce, but also necessary for the well-being of the human race.” At the same time, the author pointed out that road construction is a “state matter” that requires “art and knowledge.” “Making decent roads is not as easy as many people think” 42.

Such ideas were quite widespread in society during this period. The government was forced to pay more attention to road construction. A number of decrees on the construction and maintenance of roads are issued, standards for the width of roads and roadside strips are established, manuals on road construction are created, which became the basis for highway construction techniques in the subsequent period, different categories of roads are identified, and bridge construction is improved. Measures aimed at improving roads include measuring distances on roads, installing mileposts indicating distances, lining roads with trees, straightening them, organizing pits and inns, and drawing up road maps. Enormous work on compiling topographical descriptions of governorships and provinces was carried out in the last quarter of the 18th century.

In general, the condition of the roads was poor. I. G. Korb, who visited Russia as part of a diplomatic embassy in 1698-1699, wrote: “The (Smolensk) road was difficult, dirty and almost impassable due to the swamps in full swing; the horses sank so deep that almost only the head and it was very difficult to get them out” 43. Carts and carts got stuck in the mud, and travelers had to repair numerous bridges and crossings on the roads themselves. Throughout the 18th century. the situation has hardly changed. Even on the main highway of the country, Moscow-Petersburg, there was no normal traffic due to mud, broken trees, bogs, potholes, damaged bridges and crossings. A. N. Radishchev wrote in his famous book: “Coming from St. Petersburg, I imagined that the road was the best. She really was like that, but for a short time. The earth poured on the road, making it smooth in dry times, liquefied by rains, produced great mud in the middle of the summer and made it impassable” 44. IN emergency situations During the trips of kings and high-ranking officials, some roads were brought into relative order, but then they were abandoned and started up again. Complaints about bad roads are the leitmotif of almost all diaries and descriptions of travelers of the 18th century.

Numerous decrees on road repairs were poorly implemented, and a report was submitted to the Senate, which noted that “a road that has been done is even worse than one that has not been done” and it is better not to repair it at all: “Roads must be maintained as they are now and only bridges must be repaired.” through rivers and swamps, so that communication could not be interrupted at all, because in the rainy autumn time the present method of repairing roads does almost no relief to those passing by, and in the summer time an unfinished road is better than a made one, for the sand poured on the road causes the same difficulty to those passing by as it does to them dirt in autumn" 45.

The condition of communication routes and transport influenced the speed of travel. As a rule, they drove slowly. From Moscow to Kiev it took almost two weeks, from Arkhangelsk to Vologda - about 5 days, from Moscow to Arkhangelsk - almost 10 days, from Moscow to Smolensk - 3 days, from Moscow to Hamburg - about 20 days, etc. Trips to distant countries turned into many months and even many years of travel. Thus, trade caravans usually went to China in winter and returned only in the third year. The average speed on the roads of Central Russia was approximately 7 versts per hour in summer and 5 versts in winter.

Traffic on land roads was ensured primarily by the system of yam racing, which developed in the previous era, and in the 18th century. acquired a number of new features. As in the past, the “pits” were located along the roads - at a distance of 20-30 miles from each other. In Siberia, these distances are up to the 80s. XVIII century were significantly larger and sometimes amounted to 100 miles or more. The coachmen settled near the pits in settlements, which, for ease of layout, were divided into vyti with several families and households in each. The number of households in Vyti varied in different areas. As a rule, each coachman kept 3-4 horses. In addition, he had to have a cart, sleigh, saddles, harness, and if the pit was on the river, then a boat for transportation. For their service, coachmen received a salary of 20 to 25 rubles. per year, as well as runs for each supply. In addition to salaries and runs, coachmen received tax-free land from the government and were exempt from various duties 46. In the middle of the 18th century. There were more than 45 thousand coachmen in the country 47.

Management of the pits was first concentrated in the Yamsky order and orders in certain regions of the country, and local control was in the hands of Yamsky clerks and Yamsky elders. In the first quarter of the 18th century. A significant reorganization of the Yamsk business was carried out. Its essence was the centralization of control. The St. Petersburg Yamsk order was already a central institution. The Yamsk and postal departments are gradually being united. The Senate decree of 1722 secured the unification of the leadership of two central departments, Yamsk and postal, in the person of the Postal Director General. The Yamsky order was transformed into the Yamsky office and existed under this name throughout the 18th century.

Initially, the Yam service existed only for state and government needs: sending couriers, officials, and various officials. Gradually, the passage of private individuals begins to practice and passenger traffic is being established. The order of riding pit horses was as follows. Each person passing through was given a travel pass. In the center it was prescribed by Yamsk institutions and various departments, and on the periphery by city burgomasters and governors. The road pattern remained constant throughout almost the entire 18th century. It indicated the route, the name of the traveler, the number of carts and horses that he should supply, the procedure for paying for the journey and the purpose of the trip 48 . The traveler represented the road at the pit, paid the fees and had to receive the specified number of horses and carts. Until the end of the century, runs did not represent anything permanent and stable. This caused various abuses or even the reluctance of travelers to pay the fees. The most common fare for most regions of the country was 1 kopeck or one money per mile.

In the second half of the 18th century. An attempt is being made to streamline the organization of travel and regulate the number of horses harnessed to carts. The order to the Commission for drawing up the Code suggested harnessing: “A four-seater carriage has six horses, there are four riders, two behind, and a very small number of luggage. There are six horses in a four-seater reclining carriage or closet, no more than 24 poods of luggage can be put in it, and there are two people with it. A double carriage has five horses, it has two or three riders, two in back, and you can’t take anything other than the lightest luggage. A double-seater half-carriage carries four horses, has two riders, one or two in the back, and no more than 10 poods of luggage. In a yamskaya wagon there are two horses, one rider, and no more than 4 poods of luggage. If there are two riders, then add one more horse” 49.

The proposed standards for the most common types of Yamka carts were not only violated, but were also not legalized, and this caused constant complaints from the coachmen that the carts were heavy, the horses got tired and they had to harness additional ones without paying for the runs.

Everyday amenities on the road left much to be desired. Even at the beginning of the century, it was planned to set up inns at each pit or base for travelers, where travelers could rest, get hot food, spend the night, and warm up. In January 1719, Peter I signed a decree “On the establishment of inns and guest houses.” It ordered the zemstvo commissars to build courtyards on the roads “with comfortable quarters for people and horses”, “with edible grub and horse feed”, “so that passing people in those houses would have no need for anything and would not be offended by the price of trade” 50 .

However, throughout the century, very few such courts were organized. Usually these were small, uncomfortable, smoky rooms, where travelers had to be content with only the provisions they had with them. At the inns there were often all sorts of riots and disputes between travelers and coachmen and caretakers. Various decrees, orders and projects for the construction of communication routes constantly contained demands to stop unrest in pits and bases, and to strictly punish quarrels and fights.

In addition to state-owned transport, managed by the Yamsk department, private transport (carriages, carriages, etc.) was also widespread.

The growth of population mobility, the increase in the number of transportations and the mass of moving goods contributed to the development in the 18th century. a kind of trade - carriage. At the same time, there was a certain reduction in the burdensome traditional underwater duty for transporting goods by the population for state needs, so many “preferred to transfer it into monetary relations, that is, to hire cab drivers instead of themselves” 51 .

A significant category of people has emerged who organize transportation - contractors for the transportation of private and government cargo. In a number of cases, it was carried out by the owners of the carts using their employees. Sometimes transactions were transferred to smaller contractors and cab drivers. Peasants were widely involved in the carriage industry. Already at the beginning of the century, residents of more than 30 counties in the central part of the country took part in it 52. Tens of thousands of carts for transporting various goods were supplied by artels of peasant cabbies. Since the second decade, there has been some improvement in the organization of this fishery: government contracts began to be registered.

Carrying and contracting could not but affect the level of culture of broad layers of Russian society. Increasing your social circle, meeting new people and places expanded your horizons and enriched your personality, giving rise to new needs. V.I. Lenin pointed to the progressive influence of non-agricultural waste on the development of culture: “It snatches the population from abandoned, backward, forgotten backwaters and draws them into the whirlpool of modern social life. It increases the literacy and consciousness of the population, instills in them cultural habits and needs" 53 .

The 18th century is distinguished by a wide variety of different types of carts, intended for the privileged classes and ordinary people, for winter and summer, holidays and everyday life, and certain regions of the country. Elegant city carriages, simple carts and rattles, road carriages, carts, wagons, carriages, one-wheeled carriages, gigs, sleighs, sledges... Carriages became the most widespread among the ruling classes. They were different sizes: single, double, quadruple and more. They were made of wood, metal, leather, glass, mica, and decorated inside and out with carvings, inlays and paintings. This made the carriage not only a means of transportation, but also a work of decorative and applied art. It took months, and sometimes years, to make one carriage 54 . The carriages purchased for the royal trips to Europe were painted by the best master painters: Boucher, Watteau 55. The carriage body had an elegant shape, widening at the top, the front wheels were much smaller than the rear ones, springs and a turning circle became widespread. Carriage designs “usually included all the advanced mechanical innovations of the time.” 56 There was a coachman on the side of the carriage, and a riding one on one of the horses. One or two servants stood at the back. Usually the carriage had two windows and a glass door. The carriages, intended for long journeys, were of considerable size and had some household amenities. A description of the carriage in which Catherine II made her trip to Crimea in 1787 has been preserved: “The Empress’s carriage, drawn by 30 horses, was a whole carriage, it consisted of several compartments: an office, a living room for 8 people, a gambling table, a small library and was equipped with all sorts of amenities... The movement was as smooth and calm as the movement of gondolas" 57 . Along with carriages purchased abroad, in the middle of the 18th century. there were already quite a few crews of our own Russian production. The cost of a carriage, depending on the size and richness of its decoration, ranged from several hundred to a thousand rubles and more.

Common vehicle there was a cart. In winter it was placed on runners, in summer - on wheels. Carts intended for traveling long distances were designed in such a way that the traveler could not only sit, but also lie down. This made it easier to endure the hardships of bad and long roads. Here is a description of such a cart, left by a contemporary: “The top and sides of the cart were tightly closed and sealed so that almost no cold air got inside. On both sides there were windows and two rooms where books taken with them for pastime and everything necessary for life on the road were placed. In front, overhead, hung a lantern with wax candles that were lit before nightfall. At the bottom of the cart there were beds on which travelers lay day and night while moving from place to place. To warm the cart, they placed it on heated stones or tin vessels with boiling water at their feet. Despite, however, all these precautions, the strongest wines and vodkas, stored in the spare box of the cart, often froze from the cold and turned into ice. In such a movable room one could travel day and night” 59.

A type of wheeled transport such as carts was used everywhere. Their design changed rather slowly. I. Grabar pointed out in the 20s. of our century: “There is every reason to assert that since the 17th and, probably, the 16th centuries, the appearance of the cart has not changed to the present day” 60. It was created over centuries and met the requirement of constructive feasibility. “The cart was usually of a simple design: with identical front and rear wheels, without springs, with wooden axles and without a body suspension, which was knocked together from boards. But sometimes the wheels were shackled, and the body was made frame-paneled” 61. This design varied depending on the purpose and different localities. To transport people, covered carts were equipped: rydvans, rattles, and trucks. Small carts became the basis for the creation of light carts: tarataks, single-wheeled carriages, tarantassos. Various carts existed to transport goods: grain, hay, straw, vegetables and other agricultural products. In a manual on agricultural work published in 1798, it was proposed to start a “single-stake wagon in a foreign style” on a peasant farm. A drawing of the truck and a description of the design were included. It was easy to use, durable and load-bearing.

In winter, the most common means of transportation was sleighs. Yamsk sleds were made very low, made of splints or linden bark, as long as a person’s height, and lined with thick felt. The traveler usually lay down in a sleigh, was wrapped in large sheep skins on top, and then covered with felt, cloth or fur. The sleigh was distinguished by its simplicity, lightness and convenience. They were also used for transporting goods, not only in winter, but also at other times of the year. Sleigh rides were a favorite pastime of all walks of life. Traveling sleighs were decorated with carvings, gilding, expensive fabrics and furs.

In different regions of Russia, sleigh designs had their own characteristics that were preserved for a long time. In Siberia and the North, special sanitary art became widespread. Travelers have preserved descriptions of such sledges. “The frame consists of planks connected with strong ropes. They sit in the sleigh with their backs to the side walls, so that those sitting opposite each other should intertwine their legs. Behind are the things we took with us... The sleigh is very light, the wide and thin runners go through the deepest snow. There is also a crossbar with a hole so that, if necessary, you can install a pole with a sail. The dogs used for this kind of riding are no larger than our ordinary dogs, but are taller in the legs. They wear stockings made from the fur of reindeer legs, attaching them in front and behind with wide soft straps across the body. The ropes with which they pull the sleigh are covered with elk skin and fur on the outside, but on the side where they are adjacent to the dog’s body, they are tanned to avoid friction” 62.

A description of Siberian means of transportation is available from S.P. Krasheninnikov in his work dedicated to Kamchatka. About sledges, in particular, he writes the following: “A sledge of good dogs can be bought in Kamchatka for fifteen rubles, and with the whole factory it becomes about 20 rubles... Solid luggage is carried on a sledge for five poods each, not counting the food that the carriers take for themselves. and for dogs they take it on the road. With luggage, they travel 30 versts a day or more along the dirt road, and when traveling lightly, especially in the spring, on crusty snow, they travel 150 versts on bone runners." 63

The main draft force of land transport in the 18th century. the horse remained, in the North - dogs and deer, in the South - oxen. But already at this time, the first projects for the use of mechanical engines in transport appeared. In 1752, the palace peasant A.L. Shamshurenikov built a “self-propelled carriage” in St. Petersburg - a four-seater self-propelled four-wheeled carriage powered by muscular traction. Somewhat later, he also invented a self-propelled sleigh 64. In the 80s I.P. Kulibin worked on projects for a self-propelled “scooter” machine, and in 1791 he designed a prototype.

However, all these inventions not only did not find any serious application, but did not even receive the attention of the government. The first bicycle also went unnoticed - a two-wheeled wheelchair with muscular traction, created by the Ural serf worker Artamonov. In 1801, the inventor arrived from Verkhoturye to Moscow on a bicycle he built.

In the 18th century a universal engine for industry and transport was created - the steam engine I. I. Polzu poim. However, under the conditions of the feudal-serf system, this greatest discovery did not find application.

A new phenomenon in the development of means of communication during this period was the creation of mail. The beginnings of the postal business date back to the 17th century. The post was originally established solely for diplomatic purposes. But very soon it became obvious that it was extremely necessary for internal affairs: the organization of government of the country, industry, trade and private needs of the people. Radical reforms of public administration at the beginning of the 18th century. demanded the establishment of permanent and strong ties between central authorities and local authorities. The post was driven by the needs of the emerging national unity and at the same time served as a means of expanding and strengthening this unity.

By the end of the 17th century. There were practically three well-established postal routes: from Moscow to Arkhangelsk, to Riga and to Smolensk with a continuation to the West to Europe. Under Peter, postal communication was organized between St. Petersburg and Moscow, Revel and Vyborg. From Moscow, postal routes are established to Kyiv, Belgorod and Astrakhan. Later, other large cities, Siberia, and the south of the country were drawn into the orbit of postal communications. By the end of the century, almost all provincial and many district centers were connected with the capital and with each other by postal communication. Having originally emerged mainly for administrative and military purposes, mail gradually became ubiquitous and available for public and private needs. Reforms of the beginning of the 18th century. also affected the postal business. Peter strove to create “a unified Russian postal service, which, while meeting all the requirements of modern postal technology of cultural European states, would at the same time correspond to the needs of the state and public life of Russia” 65. In the second quarter of the 18th century. the improvement of the postal business practically ceased, and only in the second half of the century were Peter’s plans brought to their logical conclusion. By the middle of the 18th century. the length of all postal roads in the country was no more than 16-17 thousand versts, and by the beginning of the 19th century. there were 3,200 postal stations, which housed almost 38 thousand horses, and the postal department already had over 450 postal institutions 66.

The office work of the postal department was organized according to a principle borrowed from Germany, and was even carried out for a long time on German. The order of mail forwarding was as follows: all submitted correspondence was recorded in the protocol according to the number of departures of each mail of a certain route. By the end of the century, a fairly stable schedule had developed. From St. Petersburg, mail went twice a week to Riga, Moscow, Vyborg, Crimea, Ukraine, Belarus and once a month to Constantinople. Mail was sent daily to Kronstadt and Tsarskoe Selo. Postal communication with Europe was established through Riga, and with the Scandinavian countries through Vyborg. From Moscow, mail went twice a week to St. Petersburg and Smolensk, once a week to Kyiv, Crimea, Astrakhan, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk and Siberia, twice a month to Turkey. European correspondence went through Smolensk. By the end of the century, post offices existed in almost all provincial cities. After receiving the letters, a special register for correspondence was compiled, which, together with the mail, was placed in a common bag, sealed with seals. The bag was sent by postmen 1-2 hours before nightfall. At each intermediate station, a note was made about the receipt and departure of mail. Upon delivery, the packages were issued according to their ownership with a receipt for delivery with a message to the places from which they were sent, i.e., with notification. There was no charge for home delivery of letters.

Since the end of the 17th century. When organizing the Siberian postal service, Peter’s personal decree in the country for the first time established the inviolability of private correspondence: “do not print out or look at anyone’s letters” 67. Of course, this decree, like many others, was constantly violated, but as a principle the inviolability of correspondence was proclaimed and the desire to comply with it received a legislative basis.

Gradually, postal records management was improved: exact hours for the receipt and issuance of postal correspondence were established, more attention was paid to its safety during transportation, registration of postal items was introduced, etc. All these norms were reflected and consolidated in the postmaster's instructions of 1807 - the first in history Russian postal legislation 68. Thus, throughout the 18th century. Postal affairs are separated into an independent department and a uniform procedure for its organization is applied throughout the country. Since the middle of the century, not only letters, but also parcels began to be accepted for postal delivery.

In addition to the functions of sending correspondence and parcels, the post office also served as a means of passenger traffic. Passengers could also travel in postal carriages along with the mail. An order to the Legislative Commission proposed to streamline passenger traffic by mail, establishing a certain number of passengers and luggage: “Passengers by mail should travel 4 people in a carriage and charge them for the first four places by a penny, and for the last two by dengue for each mile, Moreover, passengers are allowed to take half a pound of luggage with them without any money” 69 .

The development of passenger traffic required the provision of at least a minimum of everyday amenities on the road. Already at the beginning of the 18th century. The first prototypes of hotels appeared at the post office. The first such hotel, which was also a post house, was established in St. Petersburg in 1715. Mostly visiting foreigners stayed here. Peter greatly encouraged the spread of communication between people. Receptions and assemblies were often held at the post house, in which visitors could directly participate. Along the routes, the role of hotels was played by postal stations, which were located approximately 20 miles from one another.

By the end of the 18th century. The St. Petersburg and Moscow post offices have become complex communications enterprises. They already had various divisions and a significant staff of employees. So, in the Moscow Post Office there were 8 expeditions: 1 - post office office, 2 - counting, 3 - receiving and sending money and parcels, 4 - distributing cash envelopes, 5 - sending mail, 6 - developing mail and distributing idle correspondence. 7 - foreign, 8 - secret 70.

With the establishment of mail, letters became a common means of communication between people. In the previous era, few letters were written. They were distinguished by their ornate style, prolixity, and abundant quotation of holy scripture. In the 18th century letters become more concise, more business-like in nature, contain more information and are distinguished by a secular style. A certain culture of correspondence is established. By a decree of 1701 it was forbidden to sign letters with half names and nicknames, to hit people with one's forehead and to be called a serf. In 1708, the book “Butts, how different complements are written” was translated into Russian, which established a more delicate style of communication between correspondents. It is gradually becoming customary to address the person with “you”, it is becoming customary to call the correspondent “dear sir” and sign “ready for service”, “humble servant”, etc. 71

The price for sending a letter was determined by weight, and since the paper was quite thick and rough, correspondence became an expensive pleasure, about 200 times more expensive than at the beginning of the 20th century. Along with letters, the post office took an active part in distributing newspapers, both domestic and foreign.

In the second half of the 18th century. postal maps are compiled indicating the distances between stations, road guides are published for travelers, which indicate postal schedules, arrival and departure times, the price of postal correspondence, the procedure for sending passengers, letters and parcels, postal taxes and regulations and other information. Postal service is becoming an integral part of state and public life.

Throughout the 18th century. A centralized apparatus for managing land roads and postal services is gradually taking shape. At the beginning of the century, roads were under the jurisdiction of the Chamber Board, and locally - by governors and voivodes. In 1719, supervision of roads was entrusted to zemsky commissioners 72. A special office was in charge of the construction of the Moscow-Petersburg road. In 1755, it was reorganized into the Office of the Construction of State Roads, which was in charge of all the major roads of the country 73. After 25 years, it was abolished and its functions were transferred to the lower zemstvo courts, but in 1786 it was recreated again in the form of the Commission on Roads in the State 74.

Then, various central bodies in charge of roads arose and dissolved more than once, but a stable road management system did not exist until the beginning of the 19th century. In 1809, the Directorate of Communications was created, which became the main central body in the country in charge of large roads. Russia was divided into 10 districts in terms of roads, and the positions of road wardens were established. However, the establishment of the work of this institution dates back to a later time.

Thus, in the 18th century significant changes occurred in the development of transport. The main regional river routes gradually, as canals were built, turned into a single water system of the country. The annexation of new territories along the coasts of the Baltic and Black Seas provided Russia with access to international maritime routes and the connection of river waterways with sea ones.

The development of land and water communications led to the creation of a nationwide transport system, which contributed to the growth of economic relations, internal trade turnover, zoning of production, and in general the formation of an all-Russian market.

The growth of communication, travel, travel, and exchange of correspondence, no matter what the purpose for which they were undertaken, inevitably contributed to the mutual enrichment of the cultural life of peoples. The man himself has changed noticeably: his horizons have expanded, his connection with the world, and his keen interest in it. First of all, representatives of the ruling class took advantage of the results of this process. But the broad masses of the people, who throughout the course of the objective development of history were introduced to new phenomena of life, experienced their positive influence.

1 See: Demin A.S. Russian literature of the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries. New artistic ideas about the world, nature, man. M., 1977.

2 Gnucheva V. F. Geographical Department of the Academy of Sciences in the 18th century. M. - L.,. 1946, p. 401.

3 Ibid., p. 192.

4 Troitsky S. M. Note from Senator N. E. Muravyov on the development of commerce and communications in Russia (60s of the 18th century). - In the book: Historical geography of Russia in the 17th - early 20th centuries. M., 1975, p. 239.

5 Short description internal Russian Empire water navigation between the Baltic, Black, White and Caspian seas, serving as an explanation of the hydrographic map published by the Department of Water Communications and. St. Petersburg, 1802.

6 PSZ, vol. XXII, no. 16068, p. 217.

7 Istomina E. G. Waterways of Russia in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. M., 1982, p. 99.

8 Historical travels. Extracts from notes and memoirs of foreign and Russian travelers along the Volga in the 15th-18th centuries. Compiled by Alekseev V. Stalingrad, 1936, p. 192.

9 Gorelov V. A. River canals in Russia. On the history of Russian canals of the 18th century. M. -L., 1953, p. 8.

10 Rodin F.N. Bargaining in Russia. Historical and sociological essay. M., 1975, p. 62-63.

11 PSZ, vol. V, no. 3397, p. 718-719.

12 Danilevsky V.V. Russian technology. L., 1949, p. 280.

13 Istomina E. G. Decree. cit., p. 137-140.

14 Klyuchevsky V.O. Soch., vol. 4. M.t. 1958, p. 32.

15 For more details, see the essay on military affairs, the army and the navy.

16 Semenova L.I. Workers of St. Petersburg in the first half of the 18th century. L., 1974, p. 65.

17 Malinovsky K.V. Notes of Jacob Shtelin on sculpture in Russia in the 18th century. - In the book: Russian art second half of the 18th century - first half of the 19th century. Materials and research. Ed. T. V. Alekseeva. M., 1979, p. 110.

18 PSZ, vol. IV, no. 2956, p. 183.

19 Shubin I.A. Volga and Volga shipping. M., 1927, p. 180.

20 Istomina E. G. Decree. cit., p. 58.

21 Ibid., p. 60.

22 Rubiishtein N. L. Some issues of the formation of the labor market in Russia in the 18th century. - Questions of History, 1952, No. 2, p. 95.

23 Essays on the history of the USSR. XVIII century M., 1962, p. 182.

24 Rodin F.N. Decree. cit., p. 79-80.

25 Istomina E. G. Decree. cit., p. 85.

26 Ibid., p. 81-89, 124.

27 Rodin F.N. Decree. cit., p. 74-75.

28 PSZ, vol. XV, No. 10926, p. 320-323.

29 Charter of merchant shipping. St. Petersburg, 1784.

30 PSZ, vol. XXI, no. 15562.

31 PSZ, vol. XXIV, No. 17 848, p. 504-505.

32 Krasnobaev B.I. Essays on the history of Russian culture of the 18th century. M., 1972, p. 45-46.

33 Danilevsky V.V. Russian technical literature of the first quarter of the 18th century. M. -L., 1954, p. 171.

34 Muravyov A.V., Samarkin V.V. Historical geography of the era of feudalism. M., 1973, p. 141.

35 The Foreign and Russian Road Worker and the surface book of the Russian state with the addition of news about mail and weights for letters of money, as well as search for postmasters and other necessary information for the benefit of messengers and travelers, collected and printed at the expense of the Imperial St. Petersburg Post Office

under the supervision of V. G. Ruban. St. Petersburg, 1777.

36 Istomina E. G. Decree. cit., p. 25-26.

37 PSZ, vol. IX, no. 16351, p. 63; Bull he is G. F. Settlement of the Yenisei region by Russians in the 18th century. Novosibirsk, 1981, p. 114.

38 Sat. RIO, t. 43, 1885, p. 390.

40 Fashina - a bunch of young forest, thick twigs without leaves.

41 PSZ, vol. XV, no. 11384, p. 868.

42 Troitsky S. M. Decree. cit., p. 237-238.

43 Korb I. G. Diary of a trip to Muscovy in 1698, 1699. St. Petersburg, 1906, p. 37.

44 Radishchev A. N. Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow. - In the book: Russian prose of the 18th century. M.-L., 1950, p. 82.

45 A brief historical sketch of the development of water and land communications and trade ports in Russia. St. Petersburg, 1900, p. 336.

46 Sokolov N.I. St. Petersburg post office under Peter the Great. St. Petersburg, 1903, p. 7.

47 Sat. RIO, vol. 43, p. 363.

48 Temporary of the Imperial Moscow Society of Russian History and Antiquities, book. 5, part III. M;, 1850, p. 27-28.

49 Sat. RIO, vol. 43, p. 365.

50 PSZ I, vol. V, no. 3295, p. 636.

51 Cabbage and on G. D. Horse-drawn transport in the Northern War (Based on materials from the Moscow fortress office of the half of the 18th century). - In the book: Questions of the military history of Russia. XVIII and first half of the XIX centuries. M., 1969, p. 162.

52 Ibid., p. 166.

53 Lenin V.I. Complete. collection cit., vol. 3, p. 576-577.

54 Chernyshev V. A. Antique carriages at Hermitage exhibitions. Guide.

L., 1980, p. 3.

55 Court Stable Museum. St. Petersburg, 1891.

56 Chernyshev V. A. Land communications in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries.

57 Kovalensky M. N. Travel of Catherine II to Crimea. M., 1916, p. 39-40.

58 Monuments of Moscow business writing. XVIII century. M., 1981, p. 38-39.

59 Quoted. by: Sokolov N.I. St. Petersburg post office under Peter the Great, p. 61.

60 Grabar I. Evolution of modes of transportation. Methods of transportation in the old days. - Construction of Moscow, 1926, No. 1, January, p. 16.

61 Chernyshev V. A. Land communications in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries, p. 17.

62 3inner E. P. Siberia in the news of Western European travelers and scientists of the 18th century. Irkutsk, 1968, p. 212-213.

63 Krasheninnikov S.P. Description of the land of Kamchatka. M., 1952, p. 398-400.

64 Weisman A.D. Transport of Russia during the period of decomposition of feudal-serf relations. On the issue of attempts to create self-propelled means of land, trackless transport. Author's abstract. Ph.D. dis. M., 1956, p. 7.

65 Sokolov N.I. St. Petersburg post office under Peter the Great, p. 143.

66 Bazilevich K. Post in Russia in the 19th century, part I. M., 1927, p. 7-9; Vitkavičius P. P. Ancient post office in the Baltic states. - In the book: From the history of natural science and technology in the Baltic states. Vilnius, 1980, p. 74.

67 PSZ, vol. Ill, no. 1654, p. 515.

68 Sokolov N.I. Moscow post office in the 18th century. St. Petersburg, 1911, p. 61.

69 Sat. RIO, vol. 43, p. 369.

70 Vigilev A. N. History of domestic mail, part II. M., 1979, p. 109.

71 Sokolov N.I. St. Petersburg post office under Peter the Great, p. 149.

72 PSZ, vol. V, no. 3295, p. 636.

73 PSZ, vol. XIV, no. 10377, p. 335-336.

74 PSZ, vol. XXII, No. 16346, p. 546-549.
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