System of consonant phonemes. Positional alternations of consonant phonemes. Progressive and regressive assimilation. Consonantal and vocal assimilation

In this chapter:

§1. Sound

Sound- the minimum unit of sounding speech. Each word has a sound shell consisting of sounds. The sound corresponds to the meaning of the word. Different words and word forms have different sound patterns. The sounds themselves are not important, but they serve an important role: they help us distinguish between:

• words: [house] - [tom], [tom] - [there], [m’el] - [m’el’]
• forms of the word: [house] - [lady´ ] - [house´ ma].

Note:

words written in square brackets are given in transcription.

§2. Transcription

Transcription is a special recording system that displays sound. The following symbols are used in the transcription:

Square brackets indicating transcription.

[ ´ ] - emphasis. The accent is placed if the word consists of more than one syllable.

[b’] - the icon next to the consonant indicates its softness.

[j] and [th] are different designations for the same sound. Since this sound is soft, these symbols are often used with an additional designation of softness: [th’]. This site uses the notation [th’], which is more familiar to most guys. The soft icon will be used to help you get used to the sound being soft.

There are other symbols. They will be introduced gradually as you become familiar with the topic.

§3. Vowels and consonants

Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.
They have different natures. They are pronounced and perceived differently, and also behave differently in speech and play different roles in it.

Vowels- these are sounds during the pronunciation of which air passes freely through the oral cavity without encountering an obstacle on its way. Pronunciation (articulation) is not focused in one place: the quality of vowels is determined by the shape of the oral cavity, which acts as a resonator. When articulating vowels, the vocal cords in the larynx work. They are close, tense and vibrate. Therefore, when pronouncing vowels, we hear a voice. Vowels can be drawn out. You can shout them. And if you put your hand to your throat, you can feel the work of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels, feel it with your hand. Vowels are the basis of a syllable; they organize it. There are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels. For example: He- 1 syllable, she- 2 syllables, Guys- 3 syllables, etc. There are words that consist of one vowel sound. For example, unions: and, and and interjections: Oh!, Ah!, Oooh! and others.

In a word, vowels can be in stressed and unstressed syllables.
Stressed syllable one in which the vowel is pronounced clearly and appears in its basic form.
IN unstressed syllables vowels are modified and pronounced differently. Changing vowels in unstressed syllables is called reduction.

There are six stressed vowels in the Russian language: [a], [o], [u], [s], [i], [e].

Remember:

There are words that can only consist of vowels, but consonants are also necessary.
In the Russian language there are many more consonants than vowels.

§4. Method of formation of consonants

Consonants- these are sounds, when pronounced, the air encounters an obstacle in its path. There are two types of obstruents in the Russian language: gap and stop - these are the two main ways of forming consonants. The type of obstruction determines the nature of the consonant sound.

Gap is formed, for example, when pronouncing sounds: [s], [z], [w], [z]. The tip of the tongue only approaches the lower or upper teeth. Friction consonants can be pulled: [s-s-s-s], [sh-sh-sh-sh] . As a result, you will clearly hear the noise: when pronouncing [c] - whistling, and when pronouncing [w] - hissing.

Bow, The second type of articulation of consonants is formed when the organs of speech close. The air flow abruptly overcomes this obstacle, the sounds are short and energetic. That's why they are called explosive. You won't be able to pull them. These are, for example, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d] . Such articulation is easier to feel and feel.

So, when pronouncing consonants, noise is heard. Presence of noise - hallmark consonants.

§5. Voiced and voiceless consonants

According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and unvoiced.
When spoken voiced consonants, both voice and noise are heard, and deaf- only noise.
Deaf words cannot be spoken loudly. They cannot be shouted.

Let's compare the words: house And cat. Each word has 1 vowel sound and 2 consonants. The vowels are the same, but the consonants are different: [d] and [m] are voiced, and [k] and [t] are voiceless. Voicedness-voicelessness is the most important feature of consonants in the Russian language.

voiced-voiceless pairs:[b] - [p], [z] - [c] and others. There are 11 such pairs.

Voiceless-voiced pairs: [p] and [b], [p"] and [b"], [f] and [v], [f"] and [v"], [k] and [d], [k"] and [g"], [t] and [d], [t"] and [d"], [w] and [g], [s] and [z], [s"] and [ z"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of voicedness - deafness. For example, the sounds [r], [l], [n], [m], [y’] do not have a voiceless pair, but [ts] and [ch’] do not have a voiced pair.

Unpaired according to deafness-voicing

Voiced unpaired:[r], [l], [n], [m], [th"], [r"], [l"], [n"], [m"] . They are also called sonorous.

What does this term mean? This is a group of consonants (9 in total) that have peculiarities of pronunciation: when they are pronounced, obstacles also arise in the oral cavity, but such that the air stream, passing through an obstacle produces only a slight noise; air passes freely through an opening in the nasal or oral cavity. Sonorants are pronounced using the voice with the addition of slight noise. Many teachers do not use this term, but everyone should know that these sounds are unpaired voiced sounds.

Sonorants have two important features:

1) they are not deafened, like paired voiced consonants, before voiceless consonants and at the end of a word;

2) before them there is no voicing of paired deaf consonants (i.e. the position in front of them is strong in deafness-voicing, just like before vowels). See more about positional changes.

Voiceless unpaired:[ts], [h"], [w":], [x], [x"].

How can it be easier to remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants?

The following phrases will help you remember lists of voiced and voiceless consonants:

Oh, we didn’t forget each other!(Here only voiced consonants)

Foka, do you want to eat some soup?(Here only voiceless consonants)

True, these phrases do not include pairs of hardness and softness. But usually people can easily figure out that not only hard [z] is voiced, but also soft [z"] too, not only [b], but also [b"], etc.

§6. Hard and soft consonants

Consonants differ not only in deafness and voicedness, but also in hardness and softness.
Hardness-softness- the second most important sign of consonants in the Russian language.

Soft consonants differ from solid special position of the tongue. When pronouncing hard words, the entire body of the tongue is pulled back, and when pronouncing soft words, it is moved forward, and the middle part of the tongue is raised. Compare: [m] - [m’], [z] - [z’]. Voiced soft ones sound higher than hard ones.

Many Russian consonants form hardness-softness pairs: [b] - [b’], [v] - [v’] and others. There are 15 such pairs.

Hardness-softness pairs: [b] and [b"], [m] and [m"], [p] and [p"], [v] and [v"], [f] and [f"] , [z] and [z"], [s] and [s"], [d] and [d"], [t] and [t"], [n] and [n"], [l] and [l"], [p] and [p"], [k] and [k"], [g] and [g"], [x] and [x"].

But there are sounds that do not have a pair on the basis of hardness and softness. For example, the sounds [zh], [sh], [ts] do not have a soft pair, but [y’] and [h’] do not have a hard pair.

Unpaired in hardness-softness

Hard unpaired: [zh], [w], [ts] .

Soft unpaired: [th"], [h"], [w":].

§7. Indication of softness of consonants in writing

Let's take a break from pure phonetics. Let's consider a practically important question: how is the softness of consonants indicated in writing?

There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language, including 15 hard-soft pairs, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants. There are only 21 consonants. How can 21 letters represent 36 sounds?

Various methods are used for this:

• iotized letters e, e, yu, i after consonants, except w, w And ts, unpaired in hardness-softness, indicate that these consonants are soft, for example: aunt- [t’o´ t’a], uncle -[Yes Yes] ;
• letter And after consonants, except w, w And ts. Consonants indicated by letters w, w And ts, unpaired solids. Examples of words with a vowel letter And: nothing- [n’i´ tk’i], sheet- [l’ist], Cute- [Cute'] ;
• letter b, after consonants, except w, w, after which the soft sign is an indicator of the grammatical form. Examples of words with a soft sign : request- [prose], stranded- [m’el’], distance- [gave’].

Thus, the softness of consonants in writing is conveyed not by special letters, but by combinations of consonants with letters and, e, e, yu, I And b. Therefore, when parsing, I advise you to pay special attention to adjacent letters after the consonants.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

School textbooks say that [w] and [w’] - unpaired in hardness and softness. How so? We hear that the sound [w’] is a soft analogue of the sound [w].
When I was studying at school myself, I couldn’t understand why? Then my son went to school. He had the same question. It appears in all children who approach learning thoughtfully.

Confusion arises because school textbooks do not take into account that the sound [sh’] is also long, but the hard sound [sh] is not. Pairs are sounds that differ in only one attribute. And [w] and [w’] - two. Therefore [w] and [w’] are not pairs.

For adults and high school students.

In order to maintain correctness, it is necessary to change the school tradition of transcribing the sound [w’]. It seems that it is easier for the guys to use one more additional sign than to face an illogical, unclear and misleading statement. It's simple. So that generation after generation does not rack their brains, it is necessary to finally show that a soft hissing sound is long.

For this purpose, in linguistic practice there are two icons:

1) superscript above the sound;
2) colon.

Using a superscript is inconvenient because it is not provided by the set of characters that can be used in computer typing. This means that the following possibilities remain: using a colon [w’:] or a grapheme denoting the letter [w’] . It seems to me that the first option is preferable. Firstly, children often mix sounds and letters at first. The use of a letter in transcription will create the basis for such confusion and provoke an error. Secondly, the guys are now starting to study early foreign languages. And the [:] symbol, when used to indicate the length of a sound, is already familiar to them. Thirdly, transcription indicating longitude with a colon [:] will perfectly convey the features of the sound. [sh’:] - soft and long, both features that make up its difference from the sound [sh] are presented clearly, simply and unambiguously.

What advice can you give to children who are now studying using generally accepted textbooks? You need to understand, comprehend, and then remember that in fact the sounds [w] and [w’:] do not form a pair in terms of hardness and softness. And I advise you to transcribe them the way your teacher requires.

§8. Place of formation of consonants

Consonants differ not only according to the characteristics already known to you:

• deafness-voice,
• hardness-softness,
• method of formation: bow-slit.

The last, fourth sign is important: place of education.
The articulation of some sounds is carried out by the lips, others - by the tongue, it in different parts. So, the sounds [p], [p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m'] are labial, [v], [v'], [f], [f' ] - labiodental, all others - lingual: anterior lingual [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n], [n'], [s], [s'], [z ], [z'], [w], [w], [w':], [h'], [c], [l], [l'], [r], [r'] , middle lingual [th’] and back lingual [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’].

§9. Positional changes of sounds

1. Strong-weak positions for vowels. Positional changes of vowels. Reduction

People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound occurs are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, a stressed syllable, an unstressed syllable, a position before a vowel, a position before a consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.

Strong position one in which sounds do not undergo positionally determined changes and appear in their basic form. A strong position is allocated for groups of sounds, for example: for vowels, this is a position in a stressed syllable. And for consonants, for example, the position before vowels is strong.

For vowels, the strong position is under stress, and the weak position is unaccented..
In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and are not pronounced as clearly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.

The sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a] after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. “Akanye” is recognized as normative in the Russian language, i.e. non-discrimination ABOUT And A in an unstressed position after hard consonants.

• under stress: [house] - [dam] - [o] ≠ [a].
• without accent: [d A ma´ ] -home´ - [d A la´ ] -dala´ - [a] = [a].

The sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e] after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position sound the same. The standard pronunciation is “hiccup”, i.e. non-discrimination E And A in an unstressed position after soft consonants.

• under stress: [m’ech’] - [m’ach’] - [e] ≠[a].
• without accent: [m’ich’o´ m]- sword´ m -[m'ich'o´ m] - ball´ m - [and] = [and].
• But what about the vowels [i], [s], [u]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position are subject to only quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not pose a problem.

[ski´ zhy], [in _lu´ zhu], [n’i´ t’i] - in both strong and weak positions the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in unstressed position we clearly hear: [ы], [у], [и] and we write the letters that are usually used to denote these sounds.

Discussing the problem of interpretation

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after hard consonants?

When performing phonetic analysis and transcribing words, many guys express bewilderment. In long polysyllabic words, after hard consonants, it is not the sound [a] that is pronounced, as school textbooks say, but something else.

They are right.

Compare the pronunciation of words: Moscow - Muscovites. Repeat each word several times and listen to what vowel sounds in the first syllable. With the word Moscow it's simple. We pronounce: [maskva´] - the sound [a] is clearly audible. And the word Muscovites? In accordance with the literary norm, in all syllables except the first syllable before stress, as well as the positions of the beginning and end of the word, we pronounce not [a], but another sound: less distinct, less clear, more similar to [s] than to [ a]. In the scientific tradition, this sound is designated by the symbol [ъ]. This means that in reality we pronounce: [mаlako´] - milk ,[khrasho´ ] - Fine ,[kalbasa´] - sausage.

I understand that by giving this material in textbooks, the authors tried to simplify it. Simplified. But many children with good hearing, who clearly hear that the sounds in the following examples are different, cannot understand why the teacher and the textbook insist that these sounds are the same. In fact:

[V A Yes ] - water´ -[V ъ d'inoy'] - water:[а]≠[ъ]
[other A wa´ ] - firewood´ -[other ъ in’ino´ th’] - wood-burning:[а]≠[ъ]

A special subsystem consists of the realization of vowels in unstressed syllables after sibilants. But in school course This material is not presented at all in most textbooks.

What vowel sounds are actually pronounced in unstressed syllables after soft consonants?

I feel the greatest sympathy for the children who study from textbooks that offer on-site A,E, ABOUT after soft consonants, hear and transcribe the sound “and, inclined to e.” I think it is fundamentally wrong to give schoolchildren as the only option the outdated pronunciation norm - “ekanya”, which is found today much less often than “icanya”, mainly among very elderly people. Guys, feel free to write in an unstressed position in the first syllable before the stress in place A And E- [And].

After soft consonants in other unstressed syllables, except for the position of the end of the word, we pronounce a short weak sound reminiscent of [i] and denoted as [b]. Say the words eight, nine and listen to yourself. We pronounce: [vo´ s’m’] - [b], [d’e´ v’t’] - [b].

Do not confuse:

Transcription marks are one thing, but letters are another.
The transcription sign [ъ] indicates a vowel after hard consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ъ is a solid sign.
The transcription sign [b] indicates a vowel after soft consonants in unstressed syllables, except for the first syllable before stress.
The letter ь is a soft sign.
Transcription signs, unlike letters, are given in square brackets.

End of the word- special position. It shows clearing of vowels after soft consonants. The system of unstressed endings is a special phonetic subsystem. In it E And A differ:

Building[building n’ii’e] - building[building n’ii’a], opinion[mn’e´ n’i’e] - opinion[mn’e´ n’ii’a], more[mo´ r’e] - seas[mo´ r’a], will[vo´l’a] - at will[na_vo´l’e]. Remember this when doing phonetic analysis of words.

Check:

How your teacher requires you to mark vowels in an unstressed position. If he uses a simplified transcription system, that's okay: it's widely accepted. Just don’t be surprised that you actually hear different sounds in the unstressed position.

2. Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants

For all consonants without exception, the strong position is position before vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, when doing phonetic analysis, do not be afraid to make a mistake when characterizing a consonant in a strong position: [dach’a] - country house,[t'l'iv'i´ z'r] - TV,[s’ino´ n’ima] - synonyms,[b'ir'o´ zy] - birch trees,[karz"i´ny] - baskets. All consonants in these examples come before vowels, i.e. in a strong position.

Strong positions on deafness of voicedness:

• before vowels: [there] - there,[ladies] - I'll give,
• before unpaired voiced [p], [p’], [l], [l’], [n], [n’], [m], [m’], [th’]: [dl’a] - For,[tl'a] - aphids,
• Before [in], [in’]: [own’] - mine,[ringing] - ringing.

Remember:

In a strong position, voiced and voiceless consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in deafness and voicedness:

• before paired ones according to deafness-voicing: [sl´ tk’ii] - sweet,[zu´ pk’i] - teeth.
• before voiceless unpaired ones: [aphva´ t] - girth, [fhot] - entrance.
• at the end of a word: [zup] - tooth,[dup] - oak.
  

Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicing

In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become voiceless, i.e. are deafened, and the deaf are voiced, i.e. call out. Positional changes are observed only for paired consonants.

Stunning-voicing of consonants

Stunning voiced occurs in positions:

• before paired deaf people: [fsta´ in’it’] - V put,
• at the end of the word: [clat] - treasure.

Voicing of the deaf occurs at position:

• before paired voiced ones: [kaz’ba´ ] - to With bah´

Strong positions in terms of hardness and softness:

• before vowels: [mat’] - mother,[m’at’] - crush,
• at the end of the word: [von] - out there,[won’] - stench,
• before labialials: [b], [b'], [p], [p'], [m], [m'] and posterior linguals: [k], [k'], [g], [g' ], [x[, [x'] for sounds [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [n ], [n'], [r], [r']: [sa´ n'k'i] - Sa´nki(gen. fall.), [s´ ank’i] - sled,[bun] - bun,[bu´ l’qt’] - gurgle,
• all positions for sounds [l] and [l’]: [forehead] - forehead,[pal'ba] - firing.

Remember:

In a strong position, hard and soft consonants do not change their quality.

Weak positions in hardness-softness and positional changes in hardness-softness.

• before soft [t’], [d’] for consonants [c], [z], which are necessarily softened: , [z’d’es’],
• before [h’] and [w’:] for [n], which is necessarily softened: [po´ n’ch’ik] - donut,[ka´ m’n’sh’:ik] - mason.

Remember:

In a number of positions today, both soft and hard pronunciation is possible:

• before soft front-lingual [n’], [l’] for front-lingual consonants [c], [z]: snow -[s’n’ek] and , make angry -[z’l’it’] and [zl’it’]
• before soft front-lingual, [z’] for front-lingual [t], [d] - lift -[pad’n’a´ t’] and [padn’a´ t’] , take away -[at’n’a´ t’] and [atn’a´ t’]
• before soft front-lingual [t"], [d"], [s"], [z"] for front-lingual [n]: vi´ntik -[v’i´ n"t"ik] and [v’i´ nt’ik], pension -[p'e´ n's'ii'a] and [p'e´ n's'ii'a]
• before soft labials [v’], [f’], [b’], [p’], [m’] for labials: enter -[f"p"isa´ t’] and [fp"is´ at’], ri´ fme(Dan. fall.) - [r'i´ f"m"e] and [r'i´ fm"e]

Remember:

In all cases, positional softening of consonants is possible in a weak position.
It is a mistake to write a soft sign when softening consonants positionally.

Positional changes of consonants based on the method and place of formation

Naturally, in the school tradition it is not customary to present the characteristics of sounds and the positional changes that occur with them in all the details. But the general principles of phonetics need to be learned. Without this, it is difficult to do phonetic analysis and complete test tasks. Therefore, below is a list of positionally determined changes in consonants based on the method and place of formation. This material is a tangible help for those who want to avoid mistakes in phonetic analysis.

Assimilation of consonants

The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by similarity of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are nearby.

Learn the list:

[c] and [w] → [w:] - sew

[z] and [zh] → [zh:] - compress

[s] and [h’] - at the root of words → [sh’:] - happiness, score
- at the junction of morphemes and words → [w’:h’] - comb, dishonest, with what (a preposition followed by a word is pronounced together as one word)

[s] and [w’:] → [w’:] - split

[t] and [c] - in verb forms → [ts:] - smiles
-at the junction of prefix and root → [tss] - sleep it off

[t] and [ts] → [ts:] - unhook

[t] and [h’] → [h’:] - report

[t] and [t] and [w’:]←[c] and [h’] - Countdown

[d] and [w’:] ←[c] and [h’] - counting

Dissociation of consonants

Dissimilarity is a process of positional change, the opposite of assimilation.

[g] and [k’] → [h’k’] - easy

Simplifying consonant clusters

Learn the list:

vst - [stv]: hello, feel
zdn - [zn]: late
zdc - [sc] : by the reins
lnts - [nts]: Sun
NDC - [nc]: Dutch
ndsh - [ns:] landscape
NTG - [ng]: x-ray
rdc - [rts]: heart
rdch - [rh’]: little heart
stl - [sl’]: happy
stn - [dn]: local

Pronunciation of sound groups:

In the forms of adjectives, pronouns, participles there are letter combinations: wow, him. IN place G they are pronounced [in]: him, beautiful, blue.
Avoid reading letter by letter. Say the words him, blue, beautiful Right.

§10. Letters and sounds

Letters and sounds have different purposes and different natures. But these are comparable systems. Therefore, you need to know the types of ratios.

Types of relationships between letters and sounds:

1. The letter denotes a sound, for example, vowels after hard consonants and consonants before vowels: weather.
2. The letter does not have its own sound meaning, for example b And ъ: mouse
3. A letter represents two sounds, for example iotated vowels e, e, yu, i in positions:
   • the beginning of a word
   • after vowels,
   • after separators b And ъ.
4. A letter can denote a sound and the quality of the preceding sound, such as iotated vowels and And after soft consonants.
5. The letter may indicate the quality of the preceding sound, for example b in words shadow, stump, gunfire.
6. Two letters can represent one sound, usually a long one: sew, compress, rush
7. Three letters correspond to one sound: smile - shh -[ts:]

Test of strength

Check your understanding of this chapter.

Final test

1. What determines the quality of a vowel sound?

   • From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
   • From the barrier formed by the speech organs at the moment of pronouncing a sound

2. What is reduction called?

   • pronouncing vowels under stress
   • pronouncing unstressed vowels
   • special pronunciation of consonants

3. For which sounds does the air stream encounter an obstacle on its path: a bow or a gap?

   • In vowels
   • In consonants

4. Can voiceless consonants be pronounced loudly?

5. Are the vocal cords involved in pronouncing voiceless consonants?

6. How many pairs of consonants are formed according to deafness and voicedness?

7. How many consonants do not have a voiced-voiced pair?

8. How many pairs do Russian consonants form according to hardness and softness?

9. How many consonants do not have a hard-soft pair?

10. How is the softness of consonants conveyed in writing?

    • Special icons
    • Letter combinations

11. What is the name of the position of a sound in a stream of speech in which it appears in its basic form, without undergoing positional changes?

    • Strong position
    • Weak position

12. What sounds have strong and weak positions?

    • In vowels
    • In consonants
    • For everyone: both vowels and consonants

Right answers:

1. From the shape of the oral cavity at the moment of pronouncing the sound
2. pronouncing unstressed vowels
3. In consonants
4. Letter combinations
5. Strong position
6. For everyone: both vowels and consonants

In contact with

Issues covered:

1. Types of alternations of sounds.
2. Positional alternation of sounds:

a) positional alternations of vowel sounds;

b) positional alternations of consonant sounds.

3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants.

Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, sound position, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,constriction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, deafening of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.

1. Types of alternations of sounds

During speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this replacement is permanent, regular, and explained by the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relationship of regular replacement of some sounds with others in the same phonetic conditions is called alternating.

Alternations associated with the position of a sound are called positional alternations. Alternations caused by phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.

All types of sound alternations can be presented in the following table:

Types of sound alternations

Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and therefore words, since alternations are associated with the relationships of sounds (phonemes) within a system, where units are connected to each other in some way. In language, there are two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) – relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) – relations of unification of homogeneous units based on associations.

In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and recognizing similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of sound, is paradigmatic (for example, when a speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] are the same typical sound).

2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)

Sounds in the stream of speech are pronounced with different strength and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position – this is its immediate environment, as well as its position at the beginning, at the end of a word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels, its position in relation to stress.

There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.

Positional changes – these are changes in sound associated with its position (for example, deafening at the end of a word, weakening of unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of Positional Changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, prolapse (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.

Combinatorial changes – these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for deafening at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.

2 a) Positional alternations of vowel sounds

The main type of positional changes in vowel sounds is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative reduction – decrease in length and sound strength - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation of [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). High-quality reduction– weakening with some change in sound. For example, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are in an unstressed position. Wed: sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mlLtok].

The sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of the word and as a reduced sound [ъ] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk– [milLko], beard– [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] - Rowan[r"i e b"in], hourly[h"sLvoy].

The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [and e], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight– [p"r"i e l"ot].

In foreign words, the qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano– [рLjал"], but boa[boa], remark[r"and e mark], but metro[m "etro".

Positional changes in vowel sounds undergoing reduction can be presented in the following table:

Combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sounds and are called accommodation. Wed. pronunciation of [o] in words they say[they say], chalk[m’·ol], mole[mo·l’]. Accommodation can be progressive (®): chalk[m’·ol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo·l’].

Thus, characterizing changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (reduction is qualitative, quantitative or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonant sounds (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, birch[b'i e r'oz]:

[and e] – positional changes (relative to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.

[·o] – there are no positional changes, because stressed vowel; combinatorial changes – progressive accommodation.

[ъ] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; there are no combinatorial changes.

2 b) Positional alternations of consonant sounds

As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed. the sound of the sound [t] in words – So And That: [sic] – [t o from].

Much more common than accommodation are other changes in consonant sounds.

Assimilation – similarity on any basis. Assimilation happens:

• by proximity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
• by the nature of the change by deafness/voice And hardness/softness;
• in the direction of influence – progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(exposure to sounds from right to left (¬);
• in terms of completeness of comparison: full And partial.

The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale– [skask] – voiced [z], under the influence of the voiceless [k], was assimilated into the voiceless paired sound [s]. This is contact assimilation, partial regressive in deafness.

Whistling consonants before sibilants as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I'm driving .

D assimilation – dissimilarity of sounds. In Russian this process is rare. As a result of the process, sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft– [m "ahk"y], easy– [l "ohk"y]. Pairs of sounds or similar sounds that are identical in the method or place of formation are subject to dissimilation. Dissimilation may be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.

Distant progressive dissimilation occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in common parlance kolidor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: th, hrs like [shn] – What[what] and - wow, -him like [ova], [iva]: blue– [s "in" ьвъ]! These alternations take place regularly, in the same positions, without exception, and have the character of a law.)

Contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [g'artskaya ® g'artskaya], [ts] ® [ts].

When groups of consonants are contracted, sound loss may occur: Sun- [son]. Usually these are combinations [vstv], [ntsk], [stl], etc.

Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:

Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)- (from the Greek diaresis - gap) - omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant– [g’igansk’iy].

Haplology– (from Greek gaplos – simple + logos – concept) omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralology, standard bearer, instead of standard bearer.

Metathesis– (from the Greek metathesis - rearrangement) rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from ticket.

Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, ndrav instead of disposition, scorpijon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in a word coffee(from coffee), sound [v] in a word singer(from sang) in literary speech.

Substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic of the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[в] instead of [w].

3. Historical alternations of sounds

Regular changes in sounds, not related to position in a word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:

vowel alternation:

[ e] –[ i] –[ o] –[ a] – [Ø] // sound zero: died - die; pestilence - to kill - I will die; take – collect – collection – collect;

[e] – [Ø] sound zero: stump - stump; faithful - faithful; wind - wind;

[o] – [Ø] – sound zero: forehead - forehead; bottomless - bottom; lie - to lie;

[s] – [Ø] – zero sound: send –ambassador - to send.

Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:

[i] – [th] – [her] – [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;

[s] – [oh] – [ov] – [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim – swimmer – swim; cover – cut – cover;

[y] – [ov] – [ev]: kuyu – forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;

[a] – [im] – [m]: reap – shake – press;

[a] – [in] – [n]: reap - reap - reap.

consonant alternation:

[g] – [f] – [z]: friend - be friends - friends; run - run; moisture – wet;

[k] – [h]: scream - shout; hand - manual; bake - bakes;

[x] – [w]: quiet - silence; dry – land; stuffiness - stuffy;

[z] – [z"] – [zh]: thunderstorm - threaten - threaten; carry - drive; smear - smear; climb - I get along;

[s] – [s"] – [w]: bring – carry – burden; scythe - mow - mow; ask - demand - request; high - height - higher;

[t] – [t"] – [h] – [w"]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return – return – return;

[d] – [f] – [zh]: gardens - planting - planting;

[n] – [n"]: change - change; torn - torn;

[l] – [l"]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;

[r] – [r"]: blow - to hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;

[b] – [b"] – [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;

[p] – [p"] – [pl"]: pour out - rash - pour out;

[v] – [v"] – [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;

[f] – [f"] – [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;

[sk] – [st] – [s"t"] – [w":]: shine - shine - sparkle - shines; start - let - lower;

[sk] – [w":]: crackle - crackle;

[st] – [w"]: whistle - whistle

4. Phonetic transcription

Phonetic transcription is the recording of spoken speech using special characters. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the nuances of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, e, yu, i. Letters ъ, ь are used in a different meaning. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È .... Ç. Basic signs adopted in phonetic transcription:

– square brackets to highlight transcribed sound units;

/ – a sign above the letter to indicate emphasis;

’ – a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;

L– a sign to indicate the sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after hard consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [сLды́], ;

ъ– a sign to indicate unstressed sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of the word: gardener– [sudLvot], young– [мълЛд΄й], as well as the unstressed sound [e] after unsoftened [zh], [sh], [ts] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement– [tsam’i e nt’i΄arv’t’].

b– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly– [h’sLvoy], forester– [l’sLvot];

and uh– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest– [l’i e snoy]; nickel– [p’i tak].

s uh – a sign to indicate a sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants f, w, c: regret– [zhy e l’et΄t’], price– [tsy e na΄],

γ – letter to indicate the fricative consonant indicated by the letter G in words: yeah, lord;

È – a bow under the line between words indicates a combined pronunciation of a function and an independent word: in rows– [пъ È р’ и е dam];

j– a letter to indicate the sound [th] at the beginning of words e,yo,yu, I, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb– [pLдjo΄м], his– [svj i e vo΄];

Ç – the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].

/ – mark of a beat pause when transcribing spoken speech: [s’i e rg’e΄ay ​​/ my friend//]

// – a sign of a phrasal pause when transcribing spoken speech:

[dom / and È s’t’e΄any pamLga΄jut //] .

Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the peculiarities of the pronunciation of a word in a particular area are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.

Literary pronunciation of words in the Russian language presupposes compliance with certain norms, which are reflected in the rules of transcription.

5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowel sounds:

1. The vowels O, A, E (in spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.

2. In all unstressed positions after hard consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika– [b llLlayk]; gardening .

The vowels I, Y, U do not change during pronunciation.

3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription they are conveyed by the sign - [вLда́]. This type of pronunciation is called let's say. The norm of the literary language is accentuated pronunciation.

4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If the word has a preposition, in the flow of speech it is one phonetic word and is transcribed in accordance with the general rule: to the garden[in ъглр΄т];

5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Z) is pronounced as I and transcribed using the [and e] sign: watch[ch'i e sy].

6. The vowel E (in spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as I and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l’i e snoy]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced unclearly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the sign [b]: forester– [l’sLvot], copse– [p'р' и е l'е΄сък].

7. The letters E, E, Yu, I are not used in transcription; in their place the sounds corresponding to the pronunciation (audible) are written: ball[m’ach’], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prolstornj jь].

8. After the hard consonants Ж, Ш, Ц in the first prestressed syllable, in place of the letter E in the transcription the sign [ы е] is written: want– [zhy e lat’], price– [tsi e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is conveyed by the sign [ъ]: yellowish[yellow].

9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in the stressed position, instead of the spelling rules I, the pronounced [s] is written in the transcription: number– [cy΄fr], lived– [lived], sewed- [whispered].

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonant sounds:

In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are deafened. Accommodation processes of consonant sounds (for example, rounding of the sound [t o ] in a word here) are usually not reflected in the transcriptions we use.

Examples
Position
Members
alternation

At home, newer, standing
Stressed syllable
First prestressed syllable after a hard consonant

There are no exceptions, that is, there are no cases (among the commonly used full-valued words of the Russian literary language) when the vowel [o] would be preserved in the second position, therefore, the alternation is positional.
The sound can alternate with zero (Table 5):
Table 5

Phonetics- a branch of linguistics in which the sound structure of a language is studied, i.e. speech sounds, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three sides to speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:

1. Speech acoustics. She studies the physical signs of speech.
2. Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. She studies the biological characteristics of speech, i.e. the work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.
3. Phonology. She studies speech sounds as a means of communication, i.e. the function or role of sounds used in a language.

Phonology is often distinguished as a separate discipline from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - speech acoustics and speech physiology - are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.

Speech sounds- These are vibrations in the air caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone- These are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise- these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength and duration.

Pitch is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range from 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one vibration per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The main frequencies of human communication are usually within the range of 500 - 4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, bass usually starts at 80 Hz, and soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of vibration of the eardrum is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for humans - the sound of the sea, the forest - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of vibrations of a man's speech sounds is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women, who speak with a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men's vocal cords are on average 23 mm, and women's are 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .

The power of sound(loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the amount of deviation from the original position). The amplitude of vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

The strength of sound is measured in decibels. A whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech is from 40 to 60 dB, the volume of a scream reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing at up to 110 - 130 dB. The Guinness Book of World Records records the record of a fourteen-year-old girl who screamed over a taking off airliner with an engine volume of 125 dB. When the sound intensity exceeds 130 dB, ear pain begins.

Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [i], being unstressed and generally having less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [i] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different volumes. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by a person's hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background, equal to a decibel.

Sound duration, i.e. the oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

Sound has a complex composition. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

Base tone is a tone generated by vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone- a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone (“upper tone”) is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental tone is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, etc. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of a body when it perceives a sound wave that has the same frequency as the vibration frequency of this body. The overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. Speech intonation is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and timbre is created by changing the frequency of overtones.

Timbre- This is a kind of coloring of sound created by overtones. It depends on the relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. Each person's timbre is strictly individual and unique, like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in forensic science.

Formanta- these are overtones amplified by resonators that characterize a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is not formed in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it persists even when whispering. In other words, this is the band of concentration of sound frequencies that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of resonators. With the help of formants we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the spectrum of a vowel sound are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person’s voice is characterized by its own voice formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characteristics of consonants are very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels can be characterized with sufficient reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of elevation of the tongue, and the second is the degree of advancement of the tongue). Below are tables illustrating the above. It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data presented are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the vowel ratios, despite the discrepancy in numbers, remain approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, of the vowel [i] will always be smaller than that of [a], and the second is larger.

The frequency characteristics of sounds are flexible, since the formants are correlated with the lowest fundamental tone, and it is also changeable. In addition, in live speech, each sound may have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and ending in formants. It is very difficult for a listener to identify sounds isolated from a stream of speech.

When communicating using language, a person pronounces sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses the speech apparatus, which consists of the following components:

1. speech organs;
2. hearing organs;
3. organs of vision.

Articulation of speech sounds is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound. The speech organs themselves include:

• the brain, which through the motor speech center (Broca's area) sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of speech production (articulation);
• breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and chest), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;
• organs of speech pronunciation (articulation), which are usually also called speech organs (in the narrow sense).

Organs of articulation are divided into active and passive. Active organs perform the movements necessary to produce sound, and passive organs are fulcrum points for the active organ.

Passive organs- these are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, upper jaw.

• cricoid cartilage, located below other cartilages. It is narrower in front and wider in back;
• thyroid cartilage, located at the top in front (in men it protrudes like an Adam’s apple, or adam's apple, because the two plates forming it make an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110), covers the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;
• paired arytenoid cartilage in the form of two triangles located at the back from above. They can move apart and move.

Speech organs (pronunciation apparatus)

Russian and Latin names of speech organs and their derivatives

Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage there are mucous folds, which are called vocal cords. They converge and diverge with the help of arytenoid cartilages, forming a glottis of various shapes. During non-speech breathing and when pronouncing dull sounds, they are spread apart and relaxed. The gap has the shape of a triangle.

A person speaks as he exhales, while he inhales only the donkeys shout: “ya.” Inhalation is also used when yawning.

People with amputated larynxes are also able to speak with a so-called esophageal voice, using muscle folds in the esophagus as a larynx.

For the formation of sound, the oral (epiglottic) cavity is of great importance, in which noises and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating timbre. The size and shape of the mouth and nose play a big role.

The tongue is a mobile organ that performs two speech functions:

• depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator;
• creates barriers when pronouncing consonants.

The lips and tongue also serve as a barrier.

The soft palate in an elevated position blocks the entrance to the nasal cavity, and sounds will not have a nasal overtone. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream passes freely through the nose, and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants and consonants.

Each language usually has about 50 speech sounds. They are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, air passes freely without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some kind of obstacle and a certain place of formation - the focus. The set of vowels in a language is called vocalism, and the set of consonants is called consonantism. As their name suggests, vowels are formed using the voice, i.e. they are always sonorant.

Vowel classification

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:

1. Row, i.e. depending on which part of the tongue is raised during pronunciation. When the front part of the tongue is raised, front vowels (i, e), middle - average(s), rear - rear vowels (o, u).

2. Rise, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of varying volumes. Vowels differ open, or, in other words, wide(a) and closed, that is narrow(and, y).

In some languages, for example, in it. and French, sounds similar in articulation differ only in a slight difference in the rise of the tongue.

3. Labialization those. depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not.

There are rounded (labial, labialized), for example, [⊃], [υ] and unrounded vowels, for example, [i], [ε].

4. Nasalization those. depending on whether the velum is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages ​​are non-nasal (formed when the palatine curtain is raised, blocking the path of air flow through the nose), but in some languages ​​(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic) nasal vowels are widely used along with non-nasal vowels.

5. Longitude. In a number of languages ​​(English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are contrasted in duration of pronunciation, i.e. they differ, for example, short vowels: [a], [i], [⊃], [υ] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [⊃:], .

In Latin and ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic meters (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic meters, which are based on dynamic stress.

This is clearly seen in the first words of Virgil’s poem “Aeneid,” written in dactyl (hexameter):

A rma vir um que cano (long syllables emphasized)

A rma v i rumque c a no (dynamic accents highlighted)

6. Diphthongization

In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs And diphthongs. A monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically uniform vowel.

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One diphthong element is always stronger than the other element. Diphthongs are of two types - descending And ascending.

In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong and the second weaker. Such diphthongs are characteristic of English. and German language: time, Zeit.

In an ascending diphthong, the first element is weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical for French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro.

For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

In Russian language There are no diphthongs. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise” and “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declensed, this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for the diphthong: “tram-em, para-yu”. But in Russian language meet diphthongoids.

A diphthongoid is a stressed heterogeneous vowel that has at the beginning or end the sound of another vowel, articulatory close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in the Russian language: house is pronounced “DuoOoM”.

Classification of consonants

There are 4 main articulatory features of consonants.

• Sonants in which the voice dominates the noise (m, n, l, p).
• Noisy ringing. Noise prevails over voice (b, c, d, h, g).
• Noisy voiceless words that are pronounced without voice (p, f, t, s, w).

2. Method of articulation

The essence of this method is the nature of overcoming the obstacle.

• Occlusive consonants are formed by a stop that forms an obstacle to the air stream. They are divided into three groups:
  1. explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (p, b, t, d, k, g);
  2. affricates. Their bow passes into the gap without explosion (ts, h);
  3. stops nasals, which have a stop without a stop (m, n).
• Slotted consonants are formed by the friction of a stream of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstacle. They are also called fricatives (Latin " frico" - true) or spirants (Latin " spiro" - blowing): (v, f, s, w, x);
• Occlusion-slit, which include the following sonants:
  1. lateral(l), in which the bow and fissure are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);
  2. trembling(p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.

3. Active organ

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into three groups:

• Labial two types:
  1. labiolabial (bilabial) (p, b, m)
  2. labiodental (v, f)
• Lingual consonants, which are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual;
  1. front-lingual divided into (according to the position of the tip of the tongue):
     • dorsal(Latin dorsum- dorsum): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);
     • apical(lat. arekh- top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);
     • kakuminal(lat. cacumen- top), or bifocal, during articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, g, h) to the front palate, and the back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. There are two foci of noise generation.
  2. although middle-language consonants, the middle part of the tongue approaches the hard palate, they are perceived as soft (th); this phenomenon is also called palatalization;
  3. back-lingual consonants include (k, h). Plingual are divided into three groups:
     • reed (uvular), for example, French [r];
     • pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German [h];
     • laryngeal: they are found as separate sounds in the Arabic language.

4. Passive organ

According to the passive organ, i.e. place of articulation, distinguished between dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate, soft sounds(th, l, t, s, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by bringing the tongue closer to the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

Syllable- the minimum unit of pronunciation of speech sounds into which you can divide your speech by pauses. The word in speech is divided not into sounds, but into syllables. In speech, it is syllables that are recognized and pronounced. Therefore, with the development of writing among all peoples, syllabic signs first appeared in the alphabets, and only then letters reflecting individual sounds.

The division into syllables is based on the difference in sonority of sounds. A sound that is more sonorous than neighboring sounds is called syllabic and forms a syllable.

A syllable usually has a peak (core) and a periphery. As a core, i.e. The syllabic sound is usually a vowel, and the periphery consists of a non-syllabic sound or several such sounds, usually represented by consonants. But a syllable can consist of only one vowel without any peripherals, e.g. diphthong in English pronouns I“I” or two or more vowels (Italian. vuoi). Peripheral vowels are non-syllabic.

But syllables may not have a vowel, for example, in the patronymic Ivanovna or in the interjections “ks-ks”, “tsss”. Consonants can be syllabic if they are sonants or occur between two consonants. Such syllables are very common in the Czech language: prst“finger” (cf. Old Russian. finger), trh“market” (cf. Russian. bargain), vlk"wolf", srdce, srbsky, Trnka(famous Czech linguist). In a sentence Vlk prchl skrz tvrz(the wolf ran through the fortress) there is not a single vowel. But in examples from the Czech language it is clear that the syllabic consonant is always sonorant.

The division into syllables is explained by different theories that complement each other.

Sonoration theory: in a syllable, the most sonorous sound is the syllabic. Therefore, in order of decreasing sonority, syllabic sounds most often are vowels, sonorant voiced consonants, noisy voiced consonants, and sometimes voiceless consonants (tss).

Dynamic theory: syllabic sound is the strongest, most intense.

Expiratory theory: a syllable is created by one moment of exhalation, a push of exhaled air. The number of syllables in a word is the number of times the candle flame flickers when the word is pronounced. But often the flame behaves contrary to the laws of this theory (for example, with a two-syllable “ay” it will flutter once).

Types of syllables

Open syllable is a syllable ending with a vowel sound, e.g. yeah, oh.

Closed syllable is a syllable ending with a consonant, e.g. hell, mind, cat.

Covered syllable begins with a consonant sound, e.g. glad, pop.

Uncovered syllable starts with a vowel sound: ah, he, ah, really.

In Russian, the syllables are mostly open, while in Japanese almost all are open (Fu-ji-ya-ma, i-ke-ba-na, sa-mu-rai, ha-ra-ki-ri).

There are also cases of extremely closed and covered syllables, for example, splash, English. and fr. strict(strict), German sprichst(you speak), Georgian - msxverpl(victim).

There are languages ​​where the roots and syllables are the same. Such languages ​​are called monosyllabic, e.g. whale. language - typical monosyllabic.

Often in speech it is very difficult to determine the boundary of a syllable.

Rus. They led me by the arm and took my friends away. They beat the viper - they killed the vipers. Palette - half a liter.

English an ocean - a notion; an aim - a name.

Sound units of language can be segmental (linear) and supersegmental.

Segmental units- these are sounds (phonemes), syllables, words, etc. Longer language units are divided into shorter segments.

Supersegmental units, or otherwise prosodic(from Greek prosodia- refrain, stress) are layered onto a chain of segments - syllables, words, phrases, sentences. Typical supersegmental units are stress and intonation.

Tact- a group of words united by one stress and separated from each other by a pause.

Proclitic- unstressed syllable before a stressed syllable, e.g. I d at small.

Enclitic- unstressed syllable after a stressed syllable, e.g. zn A Yu I .

Enclitics are often used unstressed words- articles, prepositions, particles. Sometimes they pull the emphasis on themselves: “p O d hand."

Thus, the boundaries of words and measures may not coincide.

Accent

Stress (accent) is the emphasis of a sound, syllable, word, group of words.

The three main types of stress are force, quantity and musical.

1. Power (dynamic) stress is related to the amplitude of the vibrations of the sound wave; the greater the amplitude, the stronger the sound is pronounced.
2. Quantitative (quantitative) stress is associated with the duration, length of the sound; a stressed syllable has a longer duration than unstressed syllables.
3. Musical (polytonic) stress is associated with the relative pitch of the tone, with a change in this pitch.

Usually in languages ​​that have stress, all three stresses are intertwined, but one of them predominates and the main type of stress in a particular language is determined by it.

In Russian, force stress, being the main one, is accompanied by the length of the stressed syllable.

Intonation

Intonation refers to all prosodic phenomena in syntactic units - phrases and words.

Intonation consists of the following 5 elements, the first two of which are the main components of intonation:

1. melody of speech (voice movement in pitch);
2. accent;
3. pause;
4. rate of speech;
5. voice timbre.

1. Combinatorial. Depending on the proximity of other sounds.
2. Positional changes. Associated with position in an unstressed syllable, at the end of a word, etc.

1. Combinatorial sound variation

A. Accommodation

Accommodation is the adaptation of the articulation of consonants under the influence of vowels and vowels under the influence of consonants.

Two types of accommodation - progressive and regressive.

The excursion is the beginning of articulation. Recursion is the end of articulation.

Progressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound affects the excursion of the subsequent one. For example, in Russian, the vowels “a”, “o”, “u” after soft consonants are more advanced (mat - mint, mol - chalk, luk - hatch).

Regressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound is influenced by the excursion of the subsequent one. For example, in Russian, a vowel in the vicinity of “m” or “n” is nasalized (in the word “dom” the articulation of “m” is anticipated by the nasalization of the vowel “o”, and in the word “bratu” “t” is pronounced with a rounding before “u” ").

B. Assimilation and its types.

1. Consonantal and vocal assimilation

Consonantal assimilation- likening a consonant to a consonant, for example. in the word “boat” the voiced consonant “d” is replaced by a voiceless “t” - (“tray”).

Vocal assimilation- likening a vowel to a vowel, for example, instead of “it happens” in common parlance they often say “byvat”.

2. Progressive and regressive assimilation

Progressive assimilation- the preceding sound influences the subsequent one. In Russian language progressive assimilation is very rare, for example, the dialect pronunciation of the word “Vanka” as “Vankya”. Progressive assimilation is often found in English. ( cats, balls), French- subsister, German, bash. (at + lar = attar) and other languages.

Regressive assimilation- the subsequent sound affects the previous one. It is most typical for the Russian language “boat [tray]”, vodka [votka], “got up at three [fstal f tri]”

In eng. " newspaper"[z] under the influence of [p] turns into [s], in fr. absolu[b] - in [p], German. Staub ends with [p].

In bash. "kitep bara" ( leaves) turns into “kitebbara”.

3. Complete and incomplete assimilation

An example of complete assimilation is the word “assimilation” itself [ ad(j) + simil(similar, identical) + atio(suffix) = assimilatio)]. A similar example of assimilation is “agglutination” [ ad + glutin(glue) + atio = agglutinatio].

Rus. sew [shshhyt], highest (highest), eng. cupboard“cabinet”, “buffet” is pronounced [´k∧bed]. German Zimber turned into Zimmer"room", selbst"sam" is pronounced .

With incomplete assimilation, the sound loses only part of its characteristics, for example, “where - where”, “sitting - here”, where consonants lose the sign of voicing.

4. Distant and contact assimilation

Distant assimilation. One sound influences another at a distance, although they are separated from each other by other sounds.

Rus. hooligan - hooligan (colloquial), English. foot"leg" - feet"legs", goose"goose" - geese"geese". In Old English language fori(plural number from fot"leg"), " i" changed the vowel of the root and then dropped out. It's the same in him. language: Fuss"leg"- Fusse"legs", Gans"goose"- Gänse"geese".

With contact assimilation, the interacting sounds are in direct contact.

Synharmonism

Synharmonism (vowel harmony)- distact progressive assimilation along the row and labialization. Vowels of suffixes and usually non-first syllables of a word are likened by row or by rounding (front vowels - front vowels, back vowels - back vowels), i.e. for example, in a simple word there can only be vowels “i”, “e” or only “u”, “o”.

This phenomenon is characteristic, for example, of the languages ​​of the Turkic family of languages ​​(Turkish, Bashkir, Tatar, Uzbek and others), Finno-Ugric languages ​​(Hungarian, Finnish and others), as well as one of the most ancient languages ​​- Sumerian.

For example, ball(child) + lar(plural ending) = balalar. Here all the vowels are back: the vowel [a] in bash. language closer to the back row.

But for the word “keshe” (person), the ending will not be “lar”, but “ler” - kesheler. Letter uh denotes the front vowel [ae].

More examples: Hung. levelemben"in my letter" Magyarorszagon"in Hungary", köszönöm“thank you” (synharmonism by labialization), Finn. talossa- “in the house”, tour. evlerinde"in their house." Traces of synharmonism are clearly visible in Russian borrowed from the Turkic languages. words drum, chipmunk, pencil, cockroach and etc.

Synharmonism emphasizes the unity of the word, but leads to some phonetic monotony of the words.

Dissimilation

This is the opposite of assimilation. Represents the dissimilarity of articulation of two identical or similar sounds.

February turned into February(cf. English) February, German February, fr. fevrier), corridor - corridor(colloquially), fr. couroir - couloir(Russian couloir), camel - camel- examples of distant dissimilation.

Contact dissimilation is observed in words easily[lehko], boring[boring].

Metathesis

Metathesis(gr. permutation) - mutual rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word.

Word marmor(gr. μαρμαρος) passed into Russian. marble, taler (German) Teller or Swedish talrik) - plate, dolon became palm, cheesecake - cheesecake, rigging - rigging, neuro(-pathologist) - nerve. English thridda - third (third), german brennen switched to English burn (burn), bridd - in bird (bird).

German Brennstein - Bernstein, fr. formaticu - fromage.

For example, USSR President Gorbachev always pronounced Arzebazhan instead of Azerbaijan - it was more convenient for him.

Haplology

Haplology(Greek: ´απλοος [ haplos] - simple) - simplification of a word due to dissimilation, in which the same or similar syllables are dropped. For example, miner lolo gya - mineralogy, core nope syy - snub-nosed, bli zozo bright - myopic, tragic coco media - tragicomedy, sti Pepe India - scholarship. But in the word itself gap lolo gia - haplology (*haplogy) No.

Eng. miners" rights instead of miners's rights(if identical sounding formants of the plural and the possessive case coincide, the last formant disappears).

2. Positional changes

A. Reduction

Change (weakening) of consonant and vowel sounds in quality and quantity (length) depending on their place in the word, location in unstressed syllables, etc.

Rus. d O m - house A- houses O childhood In unstressed syllables, “o” is reduced. The reduction can be complete: Vanya - Vanya, Ivanovich - Ivanovich, Ivanovna - Ivanna.

Eng. nama-name(the second vowel was first reduced partially, and then completely, remaining in spelling). Good morning - g"morning - morning.

Apocope- loss of sound at the end of a word: so - so.

Syncope- loss of sound not at the end of the word: Ivanovich - Ivanovich.

B. Stun

Loss of voicing occurs in many languages. This is usually explained by the premature return of the vocal cords to a resting state, e.g. meadows - meadow[onion], pipe - pipes[dead body].

Prosthesis- the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word, for example, Russian. osem - eight, mustache - caterpillar, fatherland - patrimony, Spanish - estudiante from lat. students, estrella from Stella(star), bash. ystakan, yshtan(glass, pants), Hung. asztal(table).

Epenthesis- the appearance of a sound in the middle of a word, for example. rus. Italy[Italy] from Italia, John - Ivan, in common parlance - kakava, rubel, shpien, bash. and Tat. pronunciation of “iks”, “act” as [ikis], [akyt].

Epithesis- the appearance of a sound at the end of a word: Russian. song - song.

Substitution. Replacing a sound alien to a given language with the sound of the native language, for example, German. Herzog- Duke, Hitler- Hitler (sound corresponding to German. " h"not in Russian), English. meeting- rally (sound " ng"[η] is absent in Russian), instead of fr. sound denoted by letter u (tu, pure) and German ü in Russian language written and pronounced [yu].

Diaeresis(Greek: miscarriage). Omission of sound: Russian. with l ntse, sir d tse, ches T ny, wait a minute T lush; bash. ultyr (sit down) - utyr.

Elision. Dropping the final vowel before the preceding vowel. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of Romance languages, for example, French. l"arbre(article le + arbre), D"Artagnan - de Artagnan, D"Arc - de Arc), bash. neither ashley - nishley.

Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Phoneme

The basic concept in phonology is phoneme. The term “phoneme” was introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of French nobles, Ivan (Jan) Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), the founder of the Kazan school of linguistics. He considered the phoneme to be a mental version of the sounds of a language.

Phoneme- this is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of ​​sound. The phoneme cannot be pronounced, only the shades of the phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the specific.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example, [a] can be pronounced differently in pitch, strength, duration, timbre, but all the different millions of sounds [a] are designated by one letter, reflecting one sound type, one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet are often not the same, but parallels can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages ​​it almost coincides. A phoneme can be roughly described as a letter in the sound alphabet. If in a stream of speech of thousands of different sounds it is possible to distinguish different words, it is only thanks to phonemes.

Consequently, a phoneme is the minimum sound unit of a language system that allows one to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.

In the word “milk” one phoneme /o/ is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed.

Thus, a phoneme is an abstraction, a type, a model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts of “phoneme” and “speech sound” do not coincide.

In a word " boy» two phonemes, not three, as it differs from words by, be, bee, bar etc.

There are also cases when two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word “children’s” /t/ and /s/ sound like one sound [ts], and in the word “sew” /s/ and /sh/ sound like a long [sh].

Each phoneme is a set of essential features by which it differs from other phonemes. For example, /t/ is voiceless in contrast to voiced /d/, front-lingual in contrast to /p/, plosive in contrast to /s/, etc.

The features by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.

For example, in Russian language the word “there” can be pronounced with short [a] and long [a:], but the meaning of the word will not change. Consequently, in Russian these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme. But in English and German language Phonemes also differ in longitude. bit And bee, German Bann And Bahn). In Russian language the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential feature, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal.

General features that cannot be used to distinguish phonemes are called integral features. For example, the voicing feature of [b] is not a distinctive (differential), but an integral feature in relation to [x]. The phoneme is realized in the form of one of the possible options. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are called allophones. Sometimes the terms " shade"(Russian linguist Lev Shcherba) or " divergent"(Baudouin de Courtenay).

Strong position Phonemes are positions where phonemes clearly reveal their properties: catfish, myself.

Weak position- this is the position of neutralization of phonemes, where phonemes do not perform distinctive functions: With O ma, s A ma; n O ha, n A ha; ro To, ro G; ro T, ro d .

Neutralization of phonemes- this is the coincidence of different phonemes in one allophone.

The same phoneme can change its sound, but only within limits that do not affect its distinctive features. No matter how much birch trees differ from each other, they cannot be confused with oak.

Phonetic variants of phonemes are mandatory for all native speakers. If a man pronounces a sound in a low voice and lisps, and a girl pronounces a sound in a high voice and burrs, then these sounds will not be phonetic, obligatory variants of phonemes. This is a random, individual, speech, not linguistic variation.

Distribution

To identify the phonemes of a particular language, you need to know in what positions they occur. Distribution - distribution of phonemes according to pronunciation positions.

1. Contrasting distribution

Two sounds occur in the same environment and yet distinguish words. In this case, they are representatives of different phonemes.

For example, from a number of words “tom, house, lump, scrap, rum, som” it is clear that in Russian. language there are phonemes /t/, /d/, /k/, /l/, /m/, /s/, since in the same environment [ ohm] they allow you to distinguish different words.

2. Additional distribution

Two sounds never occur in the same environment and the meaning of words is not distinguished.

They are variants, allophones of the same phoneme.

For example, the vowel phoneme /e/ in Russian can have different allophones depending on different environments.

In the word “seven” [e] appears as the most closed allophone (after the soft and before the soft consonant)yu

In the word “sel” [e] appears as a less closed allophone (after a soft consonant and before a hard consonant).

In the word “six” [e] appears as a more open allophone (after the hard consonant and before the soft consonant).

In the word “pole” [e] appears as the most open allophone (after the hard consonant and before the hard consonant).

In Russian, [ы] is considered a variant of the phoneme /i/ in the position after hard consonants. For example, be - beat. Therefore, despite the visually identical environment, here we have different environments [bit´] - [b´it´]

IN Japanese The phoneme /r/ is pronounced as the middle between [p] and [l] and these sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.

3. Free variation (alternation)

Sounds occur in the same environments and do not differentiate between words and meanings. These are variants of the same linguistic unit.

For example, in French language There are two variants of /r/ - front-lingual (vibrating) as in Russian and uvular (grassing). The last option is normative, but the first is quite acceptable. In Russian, both options are equal - “land” and “earth”.

Phonological schools. Trubetskoy's phonology

On the issue of neutralizing phonemes in words like “meadow”, there are different points of view regarding the phoneme denoted by the letter “g”, but reflecting the unvoiced sound [k].

Linguists related to Leningrad school(Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba and others) believe that in the pair “meadow - meadows” the sounds [k] and [g] belong to two different phonemes /k/ and /g/.

However, linguists Moscow school(Avanesov, Reformatsky, etc.) based on the morphological principle, they believe that in the word “meadow” the sound [k] is a variant of the phoneme /r/. They also believe that for the variants [k] and [g] in the words “lug-luga” there is a common phoneme / k/y/, which they called hyperphoneme.

Hyperphoneme combines all the characteristics of the sounds [k] and [g] - velarity, explosiveness, deafness, sonority, etc. The same hyperphoneme / a/o/ is present in the unstressed first vowels in the words “b” A ran", "m O l O ko".

The outstanding Russian linguist Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890-1938), one of the theorists of the Prague linguistic circle (scientific school), which he joined in exile after the 1917 revolution, believed that in this case there is a special phoneme, which he called an archiphoneme.

Archphoneme- this is a set of common features of neutralizing phonemes.

For example, archiphoneme / k/y/ combines the common features of the neutralizing phonemes /k/ and /g/ without the voicing that separates them.

If an archiphoneme is a unit with an incomplete set of features, then a hyperphoneme is a double or even triple set of features. In his classic work “Fundamentals of Phonology” N.S. Trubetskoy also gave a classification of phonological oppositions, i.e. contrasting phonemes in order to identify similarities and differences.

1. Private oppositions

Private (lat. privo- deprive) oppositions are distinguished by the presence or absence of any feature in a pair of phonemes, for example, in one of the members of the pair b/p there is no sonority, but the other has it.

2. Gradual oppositions

Gradual (lat. degree- degree) of opposition are distinguished by different degrees of attribute that members of the opposition have.

For example, /e/ and /i/ in Russian. language in particular, they differ in different degrees of tongue elevation during articulation.

In English the opposition involves three vowels with varying degrees of openness: /i/, /e/, /ae/.

3. Equivalent oppositions

All members of the opposition have equal rights; their signs are so heterogeneous that there is no basis for contrasting the signs.

E.g. consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ are articulated in completely different ways: one is labial, the other is anterior lingual, the third is posterior lingual, and they are united only by the fact that they are consonants.

Phoneme systems

Each language has its own phoneme system (phonological system).

Phonological systems differ from each other:

1. Number of phonemes.
2. The relationship between vowel and consonant phonemes.
3. Phonological oppositions.

Different languages ​​have organizations of phoneme groups (phonological oppositions) specific to their systems.

For example, in Russian language phonemically contrasting hard and soft consonants., in French - nasal and non-nasal consonants, in English. and German languages ​​- long and short vowels.

Relationships between vowel and consonant phonemes in some languages

In some works, you can find numbers that differ from those given below, since researchers rely on different criteria for defining and counting phonemes (for example, they include borrowed phonemes or exclude diphthongs, etc.).

If we take into account the implementation of phonemes in speech (all phonetic variants), then the ratio of vowels and consonants in each language will be different than in the table, for example, in English. 38% - 62%, in it. language 36% - 64%, in French 44% - 56%.

In the flow of speech, the sounds of any language, including Russian, are in

dependent position in relation to each other, while undergoing various

modifications due to positional and combinatorial and

changes.

Positional changes are changes in sound that are caused by

are determined by the place (position) of the sound in a word. Positional changes appear in

in the form of regular alternations with different conditions implementation of one

phonemes. For example, in a series of words steam - pairs - steam locomotive there is an alternating row

represented by the following sounds: [а]////[ъ], the appearance of which is explained

is a qualitative reduction (change in vowel sounds in unstressed

positions). The positional process of the vowel region is reduction, in

consonant areas – deafening of a voiced paired consonant in the end position

Combinatorial changes are changes in sound that

which are caused by the interaction of sounds with each other. As a result,

whose interaction there is often a layering of articulation of one

sound to the articulation of another (coarticulation). There are several types

combinatorial changes – accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, diet

cutting, prosthesis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, but not all of the mentioned pro-

processes characterize the literary form of the Russian language. For example,

metathesis (tubarette, ralek), prosthesis and epenthesis (kakava, radivo) are more common

are found in common speech, dialects of popular speech.

Regular changes within a phonetic word, dictated by

the nature of the phonetic position is called positional exchange (position

tion alternation).

Sounds in the stream of speech change qualitatively depending on position

and quantitatively. Qualitative changes lead to the fact that different sounds

ki coincide: for example, phonemes<а>And<о>in words water and vapor realize -

in one sound; this type of alternation is called crossing

living. Changes that do not lead to the coincidence of different sounds are relative

are moving towards parallel types of exchange. For example, changing in unstressed 38

positions, phonemes<и>And<у>however, they will not match. N.M. Shansky in his

works adheres to a different understanding of the types of exchange and distinguishes between positional

new exchange and positional changes.

Positional exchange of vowels

The positional change of vowel sounds is observed in two types: (1) parallel

lineal and (2) intersecting.

(1) The parallel type of positional exchange of vowel sounds is due to

two processes - accommodation and quantitative reduction. Accomodation-

tion is an adaptation of the articulation of a front vowel in a strong

position to the articulation of a nearby soft consonant. As a result, ac-

comodation, the vowel sound partially changes the zone of its formation, but with

In this case, no significant qualitative changes occur, since

The process concerns only percussive sounds. Changes are happening in several

positions: after soft (t’a), before soft (at’) and between soft (t’at’) co-

vowels. There are progressive accommodation and regressive accommodation.

Consider, for example, a series of words with phonemes<а>, <о>, <у>.

<а>– [slept], [sp’at], [spat’], [p’at’] – [a] // [·a ] // [a·] // [a·];

<о>– [ox], [v’ol], [vol’b], [t’ot’b] – [o] // [·o] // [o·] // [·o·];

<у>– [bow], [l’uk], [bow], on [l’uk’] – [u] // [·у] // [у·] // [·у·].

In the given series there are no coincidences in sound.

The second reason leading to the parallel type is quantitative

reduction. High vowels are subject to quantitative reduction.

With quantitative reduction, only the strength and duration change

unstressed sound, the quality characteristics do not change in the ranks of

Also, the same sounds will not be found: [u]chit – na[u]chit –

vy[u]chen; [i]games – to [i]play – to win [i]play.

(2) The overlapping type of positional exchange of vowels is associated with the quality

vein reduction of phonemes<а>, <о>, <э >. In unstressed position all vowels

for non-upper lifting, two main positions should be taken into account: a) positive

tion of the first pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word; b) position second-

horn, third prestressed and all overstressed syllables. In this case, you should learn

It is clear that the quality of the vowel sound is influenced by the hardness/softness of the preceding

howling consonant sound.

Vowel phonemes<а>, <о>after hard consonants in first position

do not differ and are realized in sound: water - vda, gardens - sdy, po-

current - current. In the second position after hard consonants the phoneme , 39

The overlapping type of exchange is due to for the following reasons:assi-

milation by deafness/voicing, deafening of a voiced paired consonant

at the end of a word.

The reason for the parallel type is the muting of sonorous, voicing

reading unpaired consonants.

4. Positional exchange of hard and soft consonants

The positional exchange of hard and soft consonants is due to several

due to some reasons: assimilation in terms of softness/hardness and softening of the agreement

nykh before front vowels.

More consistently positional exchange is observed when softening

hard consonant in position before the vowels [and], [and

], [b]: mos[t] –

mos[t’]ik, kaz[n]a – in kaz[n’e], od[n]a – od[n’i]. Exceptions apply mainly

new pronunciation of foreign words s[te]nd, fo[ne]ma.

Assimilative mitigation in the Russian language differs inconsistently

bodiness. Previously, there was a pattern in the Russian language: before

soft consonants, many hard consonants inside the word and in the procliti-

kah were replaced by soft ones (SS > S’S). Then there was a tendency to harden

first consonant (С’С > СС). This pattern is currently in effect

time, capturing more and more new groups of consonants. In modern Russian

language, the replacement of a hard consonant depends on a number of factors: 1) on the article-

tion characteristics of the sound itself (place of formation), 2) on the position

it in a word or morpheme.

The most consistent softening of the tooth occurs before the soft

some dental ones: mo[st] – mo[s’t’]ik, le[sn]oy – le[s’n’]yk, ka[zn]a – in

ka[z’n’]e, rabo[t]a – rab[t’n’]ik, o[dn]a – o[d’n’]i, search –

o[t’t’]yank, throw [d]throw – will [d’b’]reet.

Before [t’], [d’], [s’], [z’] is usual and [n’]: ba[nt] – ba[n’]ik, roma[ns] – o

Roma[n’s’]e. However, in some words in this position it is also possible to produce

wearing a hard consonant: ko[ns’]ervy, ko[ns’]ilium, etc.

In place of a soft consonant in this position there is sometimes a pro-

wearing the hard at the end of a prefix or preposition: ra[s’t’]irat i41

ra[st’]irat, be[z’d’]eneg and be[z’]eneg; at the beginning of the word: [s’n’]eg and [sn’]eg,

[z'd']here and [here']here. Dental teeth are not involved in the action of this pattern.

Dental consonants before labials [b, p, m] are softened irregularly and

variably. Changes within one morpheme are more consistent:

[z’v’]eri.

Before [h’], [sh’:] the sound [n] is usually replaced by [n’]: vago[n] – vago[n’ch’]ik,

to[n]ky – drowned[n’ch’]toned.

Thus, it can be noted that the positional exchange of hard and soft

of consonants depends not only on phonetic conditions, which creates special

significant difficulties in mastering the orthoepic norms of modern Russian

literary language.

The concept of a phonetic syllable. Syllable theories

Phonetic syllable – natural minimal pronunciation

unit of speech flow, one of the basic sound units of phonetic

Russian language systems. L.R. Zinder wrote: “No matter how slow the speech,

no matter how we try to achieve its articulation, it does not go further than syllables

disintegrates."

Phonetic syllables consist of one or more sounds, and

one of them must be syllabic. In Russian, syllabic

The sounds are vowels, as they are the most sonorous.

Things didn’t work out in domestic linguistics uniform definition word-

ha, although the problem of syllables and syllabification of words has long attracted the attention of

investigators of Russian phonetics: one of the first to speak out on this topic

back in 1747 V.G. Trediakovsky. Significant contribution to the development of this

region was introduced by such famous domestic linguists as

L.V. Bondarko, L.R. Zinder, M.V. Panov, R.I. Avanesov, L.V. Shcherba. Was

Several theories of syllables and syllable division have been created, which are based on different

new approaches to syllables and, more broadly, to phonetics and various aspects of the study of syllables.

From the point of view of representatives of expiratory (physiological)

theory, a phonetic syllable is a sound stream pronounced

washed with one exhalation push. Carrying out an experiment with a flame of light

However, supporters of this theory tried to clearly prove the validity of this

someone's approach. If you say the words tom over the flame of a candle, then the flame

will tremble once, and in the word dark - twice. But this theory will not explain

Why does the candle flame flicker twice in the word splash?

Proponents of the sonorant theory define a syllable based on its acoustics.

ical signs. According to this theory, a syllable is a wave of sonority, therefore in a syllable

sounds of varying degrees of sonority are grouped. R.I. Avanesov, developing

sonority theory in relation to the Russian language, assigned to all groups

sounds are indices, taking into account the degree of their sonority: vowels - 4, sonorants - 3,

noisy voiced – 2, voiceless – 1. For example, the word amplitude will correspond to

to create a number of indices 431341424. The place of syllabation will coincide with the place

maximum decline in sonority. The syllabic element is

there is a vowel sound; syllabic consonants are atypical for the Russian language, because

This is why they often develop a vowel in front of them - pronounced [zhyz

iatar]. Sometimes noisy consonants are also syllabic; syllabic co-28

the vowel is, for example, the sound [s] in the interjections ks-ks-ks (when sub-

they give you a cat) or ts! (call for silence).

In the theory of muscle tension (dynamic), developed

my L.V. Shcherboy and his followers understand a syllable as a segment of sound

nia, pronounced with one impulse of muscular tension. In every word

when muscle tension increases, reaching a maximum during the formation

vowels, and then falls when consonants are formed. Usually with a wave of mu-

cool tension coincides with a wave of sonority. This theory, however,

allows you to draw syllable boundaries in the same word in different ways

(asparagus and spa-rye). In place of syllable division according to the theory of muscle tension

stress is influenced by the place of stress: the impact sound as the most tense

married is able to attract nearby consonant sounds: [shap-

kъ], but [k/\-pkán].

According to the explosive-implosive theory put forward by F. de Sos-

sur, sounds are divided into “closers” (implosive) and “opening”

"li" (explosive). For example, in the word Kola the syllables are distributed as follows:

in the following way: [number

uj]. Syllable division usually takes place in the same place as

according to the theory of sonority.

Apparently, each of these theories, according to M.V. Panov, concluded

only part of the truth is in itself. Apparently, it should be admitted that the Russian

In the Russian language there are cases of double and equally valid syllable division.

2. Types of syllables in Russian

Types of syllables are distinguished by the location of the syllable in the word, structure

ture, degree of sonority, relation to stress.

1. Based on the location of the syllable in a word, initial syllables are distinguished,

non-initial (middle) and final: [p/\-bo-t].

2. According to the structure, syllables are

- uncovered (start with a vowel) and covered (start with

non-syllabic): [i-gla];

– open (ends with a vowel) and closed (ends with a consonant)

3. Syllables are distinguished according to the degree of sonority

– constant sonority (consist of one vowel sound): in the word ig-

la first syllable [and] constant sonority;

– ascending sonority (sonority increases from consonant to vowel-

mu): for example, the second syllable in the word needle [gla] has a sonority of 234;

– descending sonority (sonority falls): for example, the first syllable in

the word arch [ar] has a sonority of 43; 29

– ascending-descending sonority (sonority increases, and then decreases

gives): the first syllable in the word asparagus has a complex sonority 1143 [spar-zh];

– descending-ascending sonority (sonority falls and then increases

melts): for example, in the first syllable in the word mossy [mossy-styj] has the sound

4. In relation to stress, syllables are divided into stressed and unstressed,

among which we should distinguish between pre-stress and post-stress.

3. Syllable division in Russian

Since in domestic linguistics it is very widespread

The theory of sonority received R.I. Avanesova, let us outline the basic rules

syllable division from the point of view of this particular theory.

The rules for division into syllables according to the sonorant theory are the consequences

in view of the basic position about the syllabic division and its border, namely, syllabic

business takes place in the place of greatest decline in sonority.

If any vowel sound is denoted by a, any sonorant sound by

l, and any noisy consonant - through t, then the rules of syllable division in Russian

In simple language it can be represented as follows:

Table 2.

aa a–a [a–ul]

ala a – l a [ y – ra ]

ata a – t a [ku – yes]

alla a – lla [vΛl – on]

atta a – tta [tru – pk]

alta al – ta [kar – t]

altla al – tla [ tem – br ]

4. Features of syllable division at the junctions of morphemes and words

The main difficulties with syllable division arise at the junctions of morphemes, and

also when combining a function and a significant word.

For example, since the combination in one syllable of three identical co-

vowels is impossible, such a combination under certain conditions simplifies

Yes. When combining a word that has a double [s] or [v] at the beginning, it is preceded by

which is a preposition with or a preposition in, is pronounced not “triple [s], but only

double: without quarrel pronounced as [b

Between vowels, a combination of two identical consonants before some

or another consonant is pronounced differently: either it is preserved, and30

then syllable division takes place between identical consonants, forming a

covered syllable: for example, from glass [is-s"t"i

Kla]; or simplified, for example

measures: to part [r/\s-ta-ts], art [i-sk-stv]. Simplification of co-groups

vowels are more often noted at the junction of the root and the suffix and less often at the junction of the pre-

rates and roots. It is easier to simplify in a conversational style, less often -

bookish and official. The more clearly the morphemic structure is manifested

words, the more often the combination of consonants at the junction of the prefix and the root is preserved

remains unchanged. And vice versa, if the meaning of the prefix is ​​weakened and the term

understanding is difficult, then the combination of consonants is usually simplified and leaves

The last group moves to the next syllable, for example: explore [examine]

], but pie [r/\-st

Supplement the lecture materials with examples of words with special cases of de-

syllables by source (1)

The subject of orthoepy. The meaning of literary pronunciation

Orthoepia (Greek orthos “correct” and epos “speech”) – a combination

norms of the literary language related to the pronunciation of sounds and their combinations

ny; orthoepy is also the name given to the branch of language science that studies the functional

rationing pronunciation norms and establishing rules for their use

rebirth.

Traditionally, all pronunciation norms are included in orthoepy

(such as the composition of phonemes, their implementation in various positions, phonemic

composition of individual morphemes) and stress norms. With a broader understanding

orthoepy also includes the norms for the formation of individual grammatical

ski forms. M.V. Panov believes that it is more expedient to consider in ortho-

epis only those cases when variants of sound implementation of the fo-

not we. For example, some say dvo[ch’n’]ik, others say dvo[sh’]ik, and ortho-49

no researcher, orthoepy differs from phonetics, which considers

regular phonetic changes in sounds in the stream of speech. So, for example, to

phonetics, and not orthoepy, should be treated, from the point of view of M.V. Panova,

norms of pronunciation of voiceless consonants at the end of a word, labialization of co-

vowels before [o], [u], since, for example, the pronunciation of the sound [s] in words

frost and thunderstorms know no exceptions.

In ordinary communication, literary pronunciation is often deviated from.

The source of this is often the native dialect (dialectal pronunciation)

tion, for example: [γ]orod). The reason for deviation from the norm may be

letter reading: popularly [h]but, [h]that, especially often found in speech

younger schoolchildren.

Correct, in accordance with the norm, literary pronunciation is

is one of the components of the literary language and an important indicator

human culture.

Historical basis of Russian literary pronunciation and

modern trends in the development of pronunciation norms

The norms of exemplary pronunciation developed gradually, together

with the formation and development of the national language. Fundamentals of Literary

language (and in particular Russian literary pronunciation) were created

mainly based on the Moscow dialect. It is known that Russian

nativeness developed in the northeastern part of the Rostov-Suzdal princely

state, the center of which was Moscow by the 15th century. Established in Moscow

norms began to be transferred to other cultural centers and were adopted there,

layering on local linguistic features and displacing them. With development and

strengthening the national language, Moscow pronunciation, with its characteristic

the hiccups and hiccups familiar to him (and the hiccups that replaced them at the beginning of the 20th century),

acquired the character and significance of national pronunciation norms. It

became widespread in public speech, entrenched in theatrical

stage. Therefore, the transfer of the capital to early XVIII century to St. Petersburg, where besides

over time, slightly different rules of pronunciation have developed, not significantly

influenced the formation of its norms. In St. Petersburg, Moscow pronunciation

underwent only minor changes: elements of the book were strengthened

letter-by-letter reading, under the influence of spelling, penetrated some

some Northern Russian pronunciation features.

In the development of modern Russian literary pronunciation in

Currently, the following leading trends stand out:

1) strengthening of letter-by-letter “graphic” pronunciation, oriented

sensitive to written speech; 50

2) phonetic adaptation of foreign words, Russification of pronunciation

in the area of ​​unstressed vowels, hard and soft consonants before e;

3) leveling of pronunciation in social terms, erasing especially

ties of territorial pronunciation.

3. Pronunciation styles

Literary language functions in many of its varieties,

which are called styles, or types. The concept of pronunciation types

was introduced by followers of L.V. Shcherby. L.V. Shcherba admitted the existence

introduction of many varieties in the field of pronunciation, which depend

on the communication situation, the content of the statement, the genre of speech. Same

a word in different stylistic contexts can change its pronounced form -

face. But for reasons of simplicity of description, researchers believe it is possible

It is necessary to limit ourselves to distinguishing two - complete and incomplete styles.

The full style is characterized by careful articulation, distinct

the ability to pronounce sounds and their combinations. Full pronunciation using

occurs when reading poetic works, when conveying important messages

on radio and television, in lectures, speeches of teachers. Full style

otherwise, it is also called bookish. The complete style became established in stage performances.

chi. In full style, for example, the unstressed vowel [o] in the words poet, sonnet,

nocturne will be pronounced without reduction; and adjectives in -ky, -hiy –

with reduced [ъ].

Incomplete (neutral) style is found in colloquial speech, in

semi-official communication, in a relaxed, friendly conversation and presentation

represents a more natural speech form for speakers.

Careless, poorly formed speech, speech with sliding articulation

it is typical for common speech.

Pronunciation styles are interconnected and can influence each other.

ha. The dominance of the incomplete style leads to the fact that the norms of the complete style

begin to experience his influence, to adapt to him. Literary

The pronunciation norm thus tends to decrease.

The presence of several pronunciation styles in orthoepy leads to

the phenomenon of pronunciation variants: for example, in full style -

hello, incomplete – hello, in common parlance – zdra[s’t’]e; And

respectively [s’eych’as], [s’ich’as], [sh’:as].

Pronunciation variants can characterize “older” (sta-

ru) and the “junior” (new) norm: bul[sh]aya – bul[chn]aya, four[r’]g –

quarter[r]g.51

4. Modern spelling standards

Pronunciation of vowels

The pronunciation of stressed vowels does not require special comments, because

since variant pronunciation does not arise in a strong position. Sometimes in

in colloquial speech, the incorrect pronunciation of the sound [o] instead of [e] occurs in

words scam, ice, modern, ridge, guardianship, and, conversely, erroneous

but they pronounce [e] instead of [o] in the words hopeless, whitish, faded, ma-

nerves. If the use of the letter е were more consistent, then

Such mistakes would have become obsolete.

In the unstressed position in the Russian literary language, the vowels of the

are worn less clearly, therefore they require certain rules of use.

1. In place of the letters O and A in the first pre-stressed syllable after hard consonants

vowels and at the absolute beginning of a word, the literary norm is characterized

akanem: zbor, mshina, kra, ptok, bman, rbuz.

After hard sibilants and ts in the first pre-stressed syllable it is pronounced

: eat, send. Old Moscow pronunciation of the sound [s

] out now

out of use and preserved only in isolated words and forms:

]fly, twenties

]ti, to coz[s]

]leneniya, etc.

In the remaining syllables, in place of O and A after hard consonants, the pronunciation

sit [b]: cook, cook, paw[b].

2. In place of the letters I, E, the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants

characterized by hiccups: b[i

]reza, h[i

]snoy, r[i

the remaining unstressed syllables should be pronounced [ь].

3. The vowels I, Y, U in unstressed syllables are pronounced weakened, but

the quality doesn't change. In place and at the beginning of the word (if it is merged in the flow of speech)

with the preceding word on a hard consonant) and in complex words

vah (the first part of which ends in a hard consonant) is pronounced

[s]: in [s] waist, house [s] garden, medical [s] institute, state [s] building.

4. Pronunciation in place of combinations ao and oo of the 1st and 2nd pre-stress

syllables are usually pronounced: nodnoy, nbum, vbsche,

zknom.. At the junction of a preposition and the next word in place of these combinations

sounds: ndnogo, writing. In such cases, pre-shock

vowels are not compressed into one sound.

In combinations eo and ea of ​​the 2nd and 3rd pre-stressed syllables in place of o or a,

as at the beginning of a word, it is pronounced, and in place of e, as a general rule, it is pronounced

duced front sound after a soft consonant, i.e. [b]:

[n"b/\]necessary, [n"b/\]repeatedly, [n"b/\]justified. 52

The combination ei in pre-stressed syllables is pronounced with a reduced

front vowel [b] in place of e: [n

y]escapable, [n"y] famous,

y]desirable.

Close to the combination ei is pronounced the more rarely encountered combination -

combinations of sounds [ььь]: [н "ььь] natural, [н

bjb] unanimously.

In the combinations ao, ou in the 2nd and 3rd pre-stressed syllables, re- is pronounced

duced vowel [ъ] in place of o or a: n[у]gad, n[у]chit, n[у]glu. IN

combinations uo, ua in the 3rd and 2nd pre-stressed syllables a vowel is pronounced

in place of o or a: [at /\] bottom, [at /\] city, [at /\] monkey.

Pronunciation of consonants

The pronunciation of the letter g requires special attention.

1. Consonant [g] in the modern Russian literary language is an explosion

noah, formed in the same way as the sound [k], but with the participation of the voice: goes out, mysterious

ka, rapids. Sometimes in oral speech one encounters the pronunciation of a fricative

[γ] instead of [g]. In Russian this is contrary to the norm. This is saved

pronunciation only in interjections [aγa], [γ op], [e γ e], as well as in sound-

expression [γaf], in some borrowed words, for example in the word gabi-

tus [γab’itus], and in the word accountant, instead of the combination xg, it is pronounced [γ]:

[buγalt'r].

In individual words [g] as a result of stunning and subsequent dissipation

Milations before voiceless consonants are pronounced as [x]. This includes

all case forms of the words light, soft, as well as their derivatives - soft

cauldron, lightweight, light, softer, soften, lighten, softest, lightest

the greatest, etc.

In the endings of the genitive case of adjectives and pronouns

Wow, -his, and also in the words today, today, in total it is pronounced [in].

2. At the end of a word, in place of voiced paired consonants, it is pronounced

corresponding voiceless consonant. Deafening of voiced consonants occurs

walks before deaf people in the middle of a word.

3. In modern Russian, some hard consonants can

soften in position before soft consonants. Especially noticeable

softening of consonants inside the root, as well as at the junction of the root and suffix; me-

it is developed at the junction of the prefix and the root, and at the junction of the preposition and the following

Sometimes there is no common word at all.

Usually the dental consonants [s], [z], [n] are softened before the soft teeth

nym: [s’t’]eklo, p[s’t’]it, [z’d’]eshny, rec[n’z’]iya, pe[n’s’]iya.

The consonant [n], in addition, softens before [h’] and [sh’:]: vago[n’]chik,

woman, go[n’]man.

Fluctuations in pronunciation are observed when [s] and [z] are prominent

sing as the final sounds of a prefix or preceding preposition:

pour and pour, pour and pour. 53

Pronunciation of hard [d] and [t] before the subsequent soft [n]

at the junction of a root and a suffix (satellite[t]nik, le[d]nik) displaces what is recommended in

present time pronunciation of soft [d] and [t]: za[d’]niy, satellite [t’]nik,

glacier.

Dental consonants [t], [d], [s], [z] before soft labials [p’], [b’], [v’],

[F'], [m'] can also protrude in solid and soft version. Pronounce:

Thursday and Thursday, ve[t’]vi and ve[t]vi, [z’]ver and [z]very, [s’]melly and

[brave. True, the pronunciation of soft consonants is already becoming outdated.

In words starting with -ism, the consonant [z] is pronounced firmly: social[z]m, ka-

fed[z]m.

Labials [b], [p], [m], [v], [f] before soft labials are pronounced without

softening (in contrast to the old Moscow norms): love, [v]bit.

Now the labial consonants do not soften even before the soft [k]: shaking[p]ki,

The hard consonants of the preceding word should not be softened by

ed by the vowel [e] of the next word, if in pronunciation they merge into

one phonetic word: in these, with enthusiasm.

Before [j], all consonants, except [w] and [z], are pronounced softly: sons

[son/\v’ja], drink, beat, use old stuff.

Before [j], consonants at the end of prefixes are usually pronounced firmly:

about[b]announcement, on[d]rise, on[b]rise.

However, in prefixes with s and z these consonants can be softened:

explain and explain, disperse and disperse.

Pronunciation in individual grammatical forms

In the nominative case plural nouns without

the stressed ending -a is pronounced as [ъ]: [онъ], [п’атнъ] and so on. Produced

wearing in this case [s] – [windows], [p’atny] – is unacceptable.

Nouns that have a plural in the accusative case

numbers have an unstressed ending -ya, pronounced with the final: lis[t’jъ],

colo[s’jъ], clo[h’jъ].

Masculine adjectives in -ky, -giy, -hiy in accordance with

old Moscow norms were pronounced with hard [k], [g], [x] and with re-

duced vowel after them: shiro[ky], stro[gy], ti[khy]. Also in

in accordance with the old norms) surnames were pronounced in -Sky: Zhu-

kov[sky], Belin[sky]. Nowadays this pronunciation is preserved only among

representatives of the older generation and on stage. In modern speech, under

influenced by spelling, pronunciation with

soft [g], [k], [x]: tone [k’i]y, structure [g’i]y, muy.

In the verbs na - nod, -givat, -hivat according to the Old Moscow norm, so

same, as in adjectives with [k], [g], [x], a firm pronunciation was accepted -

tion of back-lingual consonants. So, pull out the words, stretch them, spread them out

hivat were pronounced as vyt[k]vat, smear[h]vat, stretch[g]vat. B54

pronunciation has become widespread in modern literary languages

the indicated verbal endings with soft [k’], [g’], [x’]: pull out [k’i]vat,

stretch[g’i]vat, smear[x’i]vat.

Unstressed ending of the 3rd person plural of 2nd verbs

The conjugations -am, -yat, according to the Old Moscow norm, were pronounced as -ut, -yut:

[breathe], [mean’ut], [tash’:ut], [praise’ut], [voz’ut]. According to modern

Noah spelling norm the unstressed endings of these verbs are pronounced

with a reduced sound [ъ]: [breathe], [mean’t], [tash’:ът], [voz’t].

In the reflexive form of verbs and gerunds in the Old Moscow pro-

worn sounded [s]: battle [s], my [s], stayed [s], threw [s]. This norm is consistent

was now kept only in stage pronunciation. In living speech everything

The pronunciation of soft [s’] is becoming more widespread: my [s’], so-

took [s’].

Peculiarities of pronunciation of borrowed words

Most foreign words that have entered the common language are

have already netically mastered the Russian language, and their pronunciation is no different

comes from the words of native Russians. However, some of them are technical

terms, words of science, culture, politics, proper names - still

stand out for their pronunciation.

In a number of words of foreign origin in the first and second pre-stress

In certain syllables, a clear unreduced sound [o] is preserved: b[o]a, b[o]mond,

b[o]rdo, k[o]ctail, [o]asis, [o]tel, d[o]sier, b[o]lero. Vowel [o] produced

is worn in some words and in the post-stressed position: vet[o], cre[o],

advice[o], for [o], kaka[o], ha[o]s.

The unreduced sound [o] is preserved in an unstressed position in

many foreign proper names: B[o]dler, V[o]lter, 3[o]lya,

Sh[o]pen, M[o]passan, etc. However, there are relatively few such cases. IN

most words of foreign origin about and a in unstressed position

nii are pronounced in accordance with general norms, i.e. slightly weakened

lenno, with reduction: [b/\]kal, [b/\]ston, [k/\]ntsert, [b/\]tanika, [k/\]suit,

[pr/\]gress, yal.

In words that have become firmly established in the Russian language, consonants before the letter E

pronounced softly. It is incorrect to pronounce hard consonants before E in ta-

in some words, like affect, pool, takes, specific, correct, coffee,

museum, Odessa, pioneer, professor, theme, plywood, effect.

However, in a number of cases, the pronunciation of a hard word is still noted before E.

breath of consonants. This norm applies primarily to dental consonants [t],

[d], [n], [s], [z], [r]. 55

Hard [t] is pronounced in words such as adap[te]r, an[te]nna,

anti[te]za, a[te]ism, a[te]lye, bifsh[te]ks, o[te]l, s[te]nd, es[te]tika

In a number of geographical names and proper names it also follows

pronounce hard [t]: Ams[te]rdam, Gwa[te]mala, Vol[te]r. Saves-

Xia pronunciation of the hard [t] in a foreign language prefix -inter:

internationalism, in[te]rview, interpretation.

Hard [d] is pronounced in the words: vun[de]rkind, [de]kolte,

[de]lta, [de]ndi, ko[de]ks, core[de]ballet, mo[de]rn, [de]-jure, [de]-facto,

mo[de]l etc.

In difficult cases, you should consult spelling dictionaries.

Phonetic nature of Russian word stress

Word stress is the physical emphasis of one of the syllables of a non-

one-syllable word. By accenting part audio chain uniting

merges into a single whole - a phonetic word.

The methods of highlighting a stressed syllable are different in different languages. In Russian

In the Russian language, a stressed syllable differs from unstressed syllables by being longer,

strength and special quality of the sounds included in it and is characterized as

quantitative, forceful or dynamic.

The power of a vowel is reflected in its volume. Each vowel has

your threshold of volume, or impact. Vowels pronounced louder are -

th threshold, are perceived as shock. Stressed vowels are characterized

and a special timbre. Stressed/unstressed is a property not only of the vocal

not much, but just a syllable. A stressed syllable is characterized by clear articulation

all sounds. The mutual influence of vowels and consonants is much more pronounced

occurs in unstressed syllables.

In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable of a word and on any

I buy a morpheme - prefix, root, suffix and ending: release, house,

road, dining room, business, dear, distribute, regroup. This

the stress is called free, or mixed.

A feature of Russian verbal stress is its mobility.

versatility - the ability to move stress from one syllable to another with 32

changing a word, for example: white – white – whiter. It should be remembered, however,

that in the Russian language words with fixed stress predominate: call

- called; cake - cakes - cake.

Some words in Russian may have not one, but two or three

stresses - one main, others - secondary. Side accents are most often

The first syllable is highlighted, and the main one falls on other syllables. Side effects

renie have complex words from two stems (Old Russian), many complex

abbreviated words (building materials), words with prefixes after, outside, between,

inside and foreign language elements archi, anti, supe (literary, su-

cover). In complex and complexly abbreviated words consisting of 3 main

new, possibly 3 stresses (aerial photography

Not everything compound word has a secondary emphasis. Collateral stress

happens when both parts of a word are clearly distinguished in terms of meaning.

If the addition of the bases is weakly distinguished or not distinguished, then the by-product

Renia is not observed bakery, reliable

Intonation. Elements of intonation

Along with stress, it plays a big role in the construction of phrases and speech beats.

intonation plays.

Intonation (Latin intonation – “I pronounce it loudly”) – rhythmic

the melodic side of speech, serving as a means of expressing syntactic

meanings and emotional-expressive coloring.

From an acoustic point of view, intonation is a change in the frequency of the fundamental

tone and intensity. In addition, intonation includes other characteristics

Characteristics: tempo, logical stress, rhythm, timbre, pauses.

Rain on the street; Rain on the street? pronounced with different intonation and

the second one is increasing. Depending on the rise and fall of your voice, you

different intonation structures are divided.

given by a pause.

Tempo is characterized by the speed of pronunciation of speech segments.

The tempo differs not only in different languages, but also in the same language: the same

the same phrase can be pronounced with at different speeds. Slow pace from-

has a certain solemnity. A certain rate of speech is observed -

when dictating, talking.

Logical stress is the emphasis in a phrase or measure of a word that is important

no meaning.

be soft, strict, commanding, ingratiating, etc.

6. Functions of intonation

The main phonetic function of intonation is to organize

fundamental: intonation divides the speech flow into separate segments - phrases, etc.

You. In addition, intonation combines phonetic words into speech beats,

and bars into phrases.

Distinguishing sentences in the flow of speech different types, intonation performed

also has a communicative function. So, thanks to intonation, we distinguish

we understand the basic communicative meanings of sentences: narration, in-35

request, urge. Wed: We are going to the library. Are we going to the library? We

let's go to the library.

Intonation can indicate various semantic and grammatical

ical relations between the units forming a statement. Replica

A very good story!, pronounced with a special intonation, can half-

give a different semantic interpretation.

Intonation can convey the speaker's attitude to the content

your own statement or the statement of your interlocutor, convey information

tion about the emotional state of the speaker.

7. The concept of intonation structures

In the Russian language there are traditionally six or seven (E.A. Bryzgu-

new) basic intonation structures (IC). IR represents

tive element - center (the syllable on which the main stress falls -

of the unit being examined), the precentral part (syllables preceding the

true) and the post-central part (syllables located behind the center). Precentral

or the post-central part may be missing: for example, in the phrase Who

Here? there is no pre-central part, and in the phrase I am here there is no post-central part

All ICs have the same precentral part, which is pronounced in

average level. The main movement of tone - lowering or raising -

happens in the center. The post-central part can be pronounced above the middle

it or below the average tone. Thus, the main distinguishing

signs of IC are the ratio of melody in the center and post-center

parts. There are six main ICs.

IR-1 is characterized by a sharp decrease in tone in the center and the pronunciation

the post-central part is below average. This intonation occurs when

perfection in declarative sentences: Snow fell at night. (Center

IR is on the stressed syllable of the highlighted word).

IR-2 – the tone in the center decreases slightly or remains the same

at this level, in the syllable behind the center the tone is below average. This intonation is characteristic

turn for interrogative sentences with a question word: Where

will there be a meeting?

IK-3 - on the sounds of the center there is a sharp increase in tone, the tone decreases

the center part is below average. IK-3 is found in interrogative sentences

clauses without a question word, and also characterizes non-finite

syntagms: Have you read this book?36

IK-4 – a descending-ascending movement is observed on the sounds of the center

tones, the tone of the post-central part is above average. IK-4 is found in incomplete

interrogative sentences with the comparative conjunction a: What's the matter?

IK-5 – has two centers: on the sounds of the first center there is an ascending movement

tone, on the sounds of the second – descending, the post-central part – below the middle

him. IK-5 is used to express a high degree of a characteristic, valid

viya, states: How long ago it was!

IK-6 – in the center there is a sharp increase in tone, subsequent

syllables are pronounced above average; used to express unexpected

high-level detection of a sign, state: How she dances!

The sounds of speech in the language system correspond to units called fo-

nemami. Speech sounds are infinitely varied, their number is large, however

In the process of communication, not all signs are significant. Introducing

in everyday use the Greek term phonema, I.A. Baudouin de Coutrenay contrasts

This unit, considered as a unit of language, is related to the sound of speech.

The sound of speech is a specific element uttered by a specific person.

in a particular case; this is a certain point in the articulatory and acoustic

sk space.

The sound of a language (phoneme) is a certain abstraction of speech sounds that are close to the articulation.

lationial and acoustic relation, defined by the speaker as an identity

quality The phoneme is perceived as a sound type, a sound standard, existing

in the speaker's mind. It is impossible to pronounce and hear the phoneme, since

it's an abstraction.

Phoneme, like sound, has no meaning, but serves for identification

and distinguishing other larger significant units of language - morphemes and lec-

family The phoneme thus performs two main functions in language -

perceptual and significative.

The essence of the perceptual (lat. perception “perception”) function of manifestation is

lies in the ability of phonemes to perceive different words and identify them.

Thanks to this function, we perceive the words house and houses, brownie as

cognate, despite their different pronunciations [house],

[d/\ma][dm/\voj].

Phonemes are the building material for morphemes and words and their means

distinctions, thereby phonemes perform signification (meaning-43

personal function). For example, the words house and volume differ in phonemes

< д >And< т >.

2. Strong and weak phoneme positions

In speech, phonemes are realized in sounds. The quality of the realized sound is

depends on the position of the phoneme in the word. Phonemes are distinguished between weak and strong

positions. Strong positions are those positions in which the phoneme is best

manner performs its functions, primarily significative. In the weak

positions, the possibilities of phonemes are limited. Since phonemes perform trans-

receptive and significative functions, there are 4 types of positions: significative

catatively strong, significatively weak, perceptually strong and perceptually

tive weak.

The significatively strong position for vowels is the position under

stress, in this position the phonemes are most clearly opposed to each other

to a friend. The perceptually strong position for vowels is word-initial position

before a hard consonant, between hard consonants and after a hard consonant

vowel (ta, tat, at). Positions of phonemes before, after or surrounded by soft words

vowels are perceptually weak (t’a, t’at’, at’).

For consonants, strong and weak positions are distinguished according to deafness -

sonority, hardness-softness.

Significatively strong positions on deafness-voicing:

1) before a vowel:<дом> – <том>;

2) before sonorant:<злоj> – <слоj>;

3) before [in] and [in’]:<двоjэ> – <твоj>.

Significatively strong in terms of hardness-softness:

1) before front vowels:<вол> – <в’ол>;

2) in front of the back linguals:<катка> –<кат’ка>

3) at the end of a word:<л’эз> –<л’эз’>.

In significatively weak positions, neutralization of the background occurs

we, i.e. phonemes do not differ, so they lose their distinctive positions

tions. For example, the words mushroom and flu do not differ in pronunciation, so

how weak<б>realized in the dull sound [p]. Significatively weak fo-

him (for the purpose of correctly spelling a word containing such a phoneme)

can be checked with a strong position:<гр’ибы>. If the phoneme is not checked,

those. is not brought into a strong position, then they speak of a hyperphoneme. For example

However, in the word milk it is impossible to check the quality of the first vowel phoneme,

this means that a hyperphoneme is represented here<о/а>.

One phoneme can be realized in different sounds, forming a whole

phoneme series. For example, phoneme<а>in the word par is realized mainly

representative, dominant [a], in the word parov - in the variant, in the word uncle44

represented by variation [

A·]. Thus, the phonemic series of phonemes<а>

can be represented by the following allophones (Greek allos “other”) –

3. Phonological schools in Russian linguistics: Moscow

phonological school and Leningrad phonological school

In linguistic science there are several directions developed

studying the doctrine of the phoneme. These directions are called phonologically

mi schools. In Russia, the origin of phonology occurred in the 70s of the XIX century.

century and is associated with the name of I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay.

Developing the ideas of his teacher, L.V. Shcherba founded Peter-

Burg (Leningrad) phonological school. Positions of the St. Petersburg

(Leningrad) phonological school (P(L)FS) are developing successive

teachers and students of L.V. Shcherby – L.R. Zinder, M.I. Matusevich, A.N. Gvozdev,

L.V. Bondarko, L.L. Bulanin, L.A. Verbitskaya and others.

The Moscow Phonological School (MPS) arose in the late 20s

XX century Its founders R.I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformed,

V.N. Sidorov, A.M. Sukhotin, continuing the traditions of Baudouin de Courtenay, described

focused on the ideas reflected in his works at different times. Generalization, ug-

strengthening the positions of the IDF in the form of a holistic concept is presented in the work

takh M.V. Panova.

Both schools consider the phoneme in a significatively strong position

from the same point of view - functional. The sounds of these positions are volumetric

merge into one phoneme not on the basis of their acoustic and articulatory

proximity, but based on the ability of these sounds to fulfill their

functions – distinguish between morphemes and words. The main difference between schools in

assessment of sounds appearing in significatively weak positions. MFS

The functional criterion also applies to these positions. For example, in

in phrases goose came and goose came the word goose is the same

phonemic composition. Despite the sound difference [with

] they perceive

are allophones of the same phoneme.

P(L)FS relates to one phoneme only part of the positionally alternating

sounds. For significatively weak positions, P(L)FS puts forward

a different criterion than for significatively strong positions—commonality of sound

sounds of weak positions with sounds of strong positions. For example, in the word water

representatives of P(L)FS see in the first pre-stressed syllable<а>, but not<о>, By-

the fact that the sound in its acoustic-articulatory characteristics is closer to

phoneme<а>than to<о>.

Differences in the approach to the phoneme and their systemic properties are reflected in

phonemic transcription. 45

4. System of phonemes of the modern Russian language.

The system of any language units is characterized by orderliness, which

which manifests itself in certain and clearly established connections and relationships

niyah. The systematicity of phonemes is based on two types of relationships - pa-

radigmatic and syntagmatic.

The paradigmatics of phonemes of the Russian language is manifested in their commonality and

opposition of constitutive (permanent) characteristics. Anti-

the presence of phonemes in identical conditions makes it possible to establish a correlation

becoming phonemes of a particular language. There are as many phonemes in a language as there are sounds,

contrasted by their characteristics in significatively strong positions.

Vowel phonemes of the Russian language are contrasted in strong positions

by row, elevation and labialization. For example,<о>And<у>are included in the fo- group

in the posterior row, labialized, but different (contrasted)

according to the degree of rise. The general features of a phoneme are called integral;

the features by which phonemes are contrasted are called differential

cial. So, for phonemes<о>And<у>the degree of rise is differential

a rational feature, and series and labialization are integral.

The system of consonant phonemes is distinguished on the basis of four differentiations

al signs: place and method of formation, deafness/voice, hard-

softness/softness, forming correlative pairs according to deafness/voice and hardness

sti/softness. (For the table of consonant phonemes of the Russian language, see Methodological

instructions for organizing independent work).

22 phonemes of the Russian language form 11 pairs according to deafness/voiceness

<п>–<б>, <п’>–<б

>, <ф>–<в>, <ф’><в

>, <с>–<з>, <с’>–<з’>, <т>–<д>, <т’>–

<д’>, <к>–<г>, <к’>–<г’>, <ш>–<ж>, the remaining phonemes are unpaired.

32 phonemes form 16 pairs of hardness/softness<п>–<п

>,<б>–<б’>,

<ф>–<ф’>, <в>–<в>, <с>–<с’>, <з>–<з’>, <т>–<т’>, <д>–<д’>, <к>–<к’>,

<г>–<г’>, <х>–<х’>, <н>–<н’>, <л>–<л’>, <м>–<м’>, <р>–<р’>. Phonemes

<ч’>, , <ш’:>- are always soft, and phonemes<ц>, <ш>, <ж>–– solid.

In most cases, identifying phonemes does not cause difficulties. But

There is no unity of opinion between phonological schools.

In the vowel phoneme system, the dispute arises around the phoneme<ы>. Thought about

that the phoneme<ы>is a variant phoneme<и>, for the first time it was expressed

zana I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. He admitted that in the Old Russian language

these phonemes were independent, but after the isolation of soft phonemes

merged into one phoneme. Subsequently, L.V. Shcherba substantiated the signs that

which limit the independence of the phoneme<ы>: 1) not used in

as a separate word; 2) is not at the beginning of the word; 3) do not use

appears after soft consonants, but at the same time considered it possible to recognize it

independent. 46

Representatives of the IMF identify only 5 vowel phonemes<о>, <у>, <а>,

<и>, <э>and do not recognize the independence of the phoneme<ы>. Representatives

P(L)FS identifies six phonemes<о>, <у>, <а>, <и>, <э>, including phoneme

<ы>. As evidence of its independence, they cite separate

Toponyms with initial Y (Yyson, Ygyatta, etc.), terminological

words yikat, ykanye. But it should be noted that these words do not refer to the general

common vocabulary and, consequently, the identification of phonemes<ы>WHO-

is possible only in the subsystem of non-common words.

Some linguists do not recognize phonemes<к’>, <г’>, <х’>self-

significant, since they consider the alternations [k] // [k’], [g] // [g’], [x] // [x’] in

words and forms (re[k]a – re[k’]e, du[g]a – du[g’]e, so[x]a – so[x’]e) as phone-

tic positional, and consider hard and soft back-lingual sounds as va-

variants of one phoneme. On the other hand, if the alternation of solid and

soft back-lingual sounds are possible in at least a few commonly used

in physical words (t[k’o]sh, t[k’o]m, t[k’a], li[k’]yor, [k’]yuvet), then refuse

The phoneme cannot be independent.

Long consonant phonemes deserve special attention. Anti-

the distribution of consonant phonemes in the Russian language in terms of length and brevity varies from

is present. In addition, long consonants occur more often in morphemic

junction (import, drag, sleepy). By analogy with long consonants in

morphemic sutures also interpret long consonants inside the root (quarrel, tone-

There are different points of view on the nature of these phonemes<ш’:>, <ж’:>,

especially<ш’:>, since it can be denoted by the letter Ш. I.A. Baudouin de

Courtenay recognized the biphonemic nature of [sh’:], but did not specify which units

However, it decomposes, and since then this question has not received any attention in linguistics.

nominative solution. Considered either as one phoneme or as a combination

two, since the sound [sh’:] can be the result of complete assimilation<сч>

(grain of sand),<шч’>(freckled),<жч’>(defector),<зч’>(driver), etc.

Prepare a report on what arguments linguists give in Poland

from your point of view. 1. The concept of graphics. Graphics sections

The term graphics (Greek grapho “I write”) in linguistics has several

meanings: 1) a set of descriptive means with the help of which

natural speech is transmitted in writing (letters, punctuation marks, etc.); 2) system

relationships between letters and sounds.

Russian language graphics are divided into 2 parts (subsections).

The tasks of the 1st part include the description and study of graphic tools,

which are used in the transmission of oral speech into writing. Among the graphic

Literal and non-literal means are distinguished. To non-literal

means include punctuation marks, accent marks, italics, underlining

and others.

The second subsection of the graphics examines historical

relationships between letters and sounds of a language.

The main graphic tool is the letter, so the central

A large part of the first subsection is the theory of the alphabet. The alphabet is a co-

a collection of letters arranged in a certain order.

The modern Russian alphabet is a modification

the ancient Slavic alphabet, named after its compiler, the Cyrillic alphabet. IN

The Cyrillic alphabet was based on the Greek uncial letter (i.e. large

in letters in solemn books). The Cyrillic alphabet consisted of 43 letters, from

of which 24 letters were borrowed from the Greek alphabet, and 19 letters57

“zelo”, “worm”, “shta”, “is”, “yusy”, “yat”, etc.

The Slavic alphabet came to Rus' at the time of baptism and received

widespread not only among the Eastern, but also among the Western Slavs.

Since then, Russian writing has gone through a long and difficult path.

development. Over more than a thousand years of history, quantitative and

qualitative changes: the doublet letters of the Cyrillic alphabet were lost,

some, like b and b, changed their functions, new ones appeared. In modern

The Russian alphabet has 33 letters, of which 18 are of Greek origin (a, b,

g, d, e, z, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, f, x), 11 Slavic letters (b, f, c, ch, sh, sch, y ,

yu, ы, ъ, ь) and 4 actual Russian letters (y, e, ya, e).

2. Characteristics of the Russian alphabet

The modern Russian alphabet, like any other, is characterized by

several sides: composition, order of letters, style, name,

sound meaning.

It is known that the Russian alphabet has 33 letters. But in the Dictionary of Modern

of the new Russian literary language" in 4 volumes the letter I is named the 32nd and

the latter, and in the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” in the 17th

mach number 31 is missing. This is due to the use of the youngest letter

E. This letter was first used by the writer N.M. Karamzin in the word tears in

1797, replacing the diagraphic combination іо. Officially joining

alphabet since 1942, in practice it is regarded by many as optional

body This is manifested in the fact that in the manuscript and print it is replaced by the letter e

without diacritics. Thus, the number of letters in the alphabet and

practice partially diverges.

Each letter in the alphabet occupies its strictly defined place, which

has great practical importance in compiling dictionaries, catalogues,

cards.

Each letter theoretically has four graphic variants: two

printed - uppercase (capital), lowercase (small) - and two handwritten

Images. Separate images of the same letter are called al-

lographs, or varieties of one grapheme. Therefore, the grapheme

is an abstract unit of graphics that has four variants (cf. the concept

we eat allophone phonemes).

The distinction between printed and handwritten letters has no special function. And here