Democracy as a form of organization of the political life of society. Democracy its basic values ​​and features plan Plan democracy its basic values ​​and features

Political regime- a set of means, methods and techniques for exercising power and achieving political goals.

Universal institutions of democracy- these are the organizational forms through which democratic principles are implemented. These include: election of the highest bodies of the state; responsibility of elected bodies to voters or their representatives (deputies); turnover of elected government bodies upon expiration of their term of office.

Civil society- is a relatively independent from the state and self-organizing system of social, economic and political relations, which includes various forms of associations of people in order to satisfy their own material and spiritual needs.
Purpose civil society is to achieve an optimal and harmonious combination of private and public interests.
Conditions for the existence of civil society:
- law supremacy;
- private property as the economic basis of civil society;
- creating conditions for citizens’ initiative in various spheres of public life;
- activities of political organizations for the benefit of all members of society within the framework of the law;
- accessibility and diversity of education;
- the presence of a strong “fourth estate” - independent media.

Constitutional state- a democratic state in which the principle of the rule of law is respected; the rights and freedoms of man and citizen are the highest value.

Signs of the rule of law

Moscow Department of Education

Central District Education Department

State budgetary professional educational institution

of the city of Moscow "Service Sector College No. 3"

Methodological development of an educational lesson in the discipline of social studies on the topic:

social studies teacher

Moscow, 2014

Topic of the training session:“Democracy, its basic values ​​and characteristics. Constitutional state".

Target: Improving knowledgeabout the political system of society, the democratic political regime and the rule of law.

Tasks:

Educational:

Develop an understanding of the featuresdemocratic political regime and the rule of law.

To form ideas about the features of the rule of law and the features of a democratic regime.

Familiarize yourself with the features of the formation of democracy in modern Russia;

Educational:

Educational:

Formation of an active life position

Formation of political literacy of students

Type of lesson: mastering new knowledge

Type of lesson: combined, with elements of game and discussion

Basic teaching methods:

• problem-heuristic (identifying problems of the existence of the rule of law and civil society in Russia using the “Seven Hats” method)
• game method (voting)

Material, technical, educational and methodological equipment:

Computer;

Multimedia projector;

Projection screen;

Presentation on the topic of the lesson;

Expected Result:

Personal resultsstudying the topic are the following competencies of students:

• Development of motivation to study a section of the social science discipline "”, to independently continue studying this topic.

Meta-subject results(in four blocks):

Information block:

Communication block:

Self-organization:

Self-education:

Subject resultsThe topics studied are the following competencies:

Metasubject connections:

Story :

Mathematics :

Computer Science and ICT:

Intradisciplinary connections:

Guidelines for studying the topic “Democracy, its basic values ​​and characteristics. Constitutional state".

Purpose of studying the topic:Study and learn to apply knowledge about the political sphere of society; democratic political regime and its values; the ideal of government - the rule of law; about the problem of the formation of the rule of law and civil society in modern Russia.

Study questions.

1. Definition of democracy
2. History of democracy
3. Constitutional state
4. Civil society

Target tasks:

1. Based on knowledge about the political system, the political regime, the values ​​of democracy, the principles of the rule of law, form an idea of ​​the existence of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

2. It is logical and reasonable to state your position on this issue.

Lecture material for studying the topic

1. Definition of democracy

At the end of the 20th century, a campaign took place in the Western world to celebrate 2500 years of democracy (from the reforms of Cleisthenes 508/507 BC). What associations does the word “democracy” evoke?

Democracy ("People power") -political-legal regime , which is based on the method of collectivedecision making with equal influence of participants on the outcome of the process or on its significant stages. This regime is based on the recognition of the people as the source and subject of power.

1. History of democracy

The first forms of collective decision-making appeared in ancient times - this is the so-called primitive or communal democracy.

Approximately from according to BC e. V Athenian policy existed democratic form of government . It is called the world's first democratic system. Any citizen had the right (and even the obligation) to participate in the work of the People's Assembly. About a third of citizens could simultaneously hold one or another government position.

Until the 18th century, the most famous model of democracy wasdirect democracy , Where citizens practiced the procedure of subordinating the minority to the majority. Is such a system fair?

IN representative democracy citizens delegate part of their own rights to their elected deputies or other officials. Elected deputies make decisions taking into account the opinions of voters and are responsible to them for their actions.

1. Signs and values ​​of democracy

The signs of democracy are:

1. Leaders are appointed through honest,adversarial , competitive elections .
2. People recognized as a source of power.
3. Society carries out self management to satisfy common interests.

There are a number of values ​​associated with democracy:legality , equality , Liberty , right to self-determination , human rights and etc.

The main goal of democracy is to limit the arbitrariness of power. To achieve this goalhuman rights are recognized as the main value, and a system of their effective protection from the outside is builtlegal system .

In the modern world, the most common model is the modelliberal democracy. It includes periodicuniversally e elections in which candidates compete for votesvoters ; law supremacy ; principle separation of powers ; constitutional restrictions on the power of the majority.

1. Constitutional state

In the modern world, the ideal of government is a democratic legal state, that is, a state that operates within the boundaries set by law and guarantees the legal protection of citizens.

The idea of ​​a legal state was already touched upon in the works of Plato and Aristotle, but was most fully developed in the works of Montesquieu and Kant.According to Aristotle, power is not the member of the court, council or assembly, but the court, council, or assembly itself.

The signs of a rule of law state are:

1. The supremacy of law and rights, that is, all officials, government bodies, public associations and citizens are obliged to obey the law. Laws, in turn, must be legal, adopted by competent authorities and maximally correspond to society’s ideas of justice.
2. Guarantee of human rights and freedoms.
3. The principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial as a system of “checks and balances”, with the aim of mutual control and limitation.
4. Mutual responsibility of the state and citizens, guaranteed by an independent court.
5. Compliance of laws with international legal standards.

The prerequisites for the creation of a rule of law state are:

1. Diversity of forms of ownership, freedom of entrepreneurship, economic independence and independence of citizens.
2. Democratic legal regime, the presence of parliamentarism.
3. A unified and consistent legislative system.
4. High level of legal culture and legal consciousness of citizens.
5. Presence of civil society.

5. Civil society

One of the conditions for the existence of a rule of law state is the presence of civil society, that is, a system of relations between people that ensures the satisfaction of their rights and interests on the basis of self-government and freedom.

Civil society is a set of associations of citizens that are independent from the state and do not allow the state to usurp the individual. Also, civil society is a set of national, socio-economic, religious, moral, family relations and institutions. The interaction of civil society and the rule of law creates the sphere of public policy.

The basic principle of civil society is that the state exists for the individual, and not the individual for the state. The government should prohibit everything that is not permitted by law. For citizens, everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted. Civil society is independent of the state and is capable of limiting the influence of the state and ensuring human rights and freedoms. In voluntary civil associations a civically active personality is born.

Civil society includes three levels of social relations. The first level is associated with family, everyday life, upbringing, and culture. The second level includes the economic sphere of society. The third level covers the political sphere.

1. The problem of the rule of law and civil society in modern Russia

The second part of the training session is carried out using the Six Hats method. Students are pre-divided into groups, which are given homework in accordance with the color of the hat to prepare a statement “for” or “against” the given questions.

Red hat. Emotions, intuition, feelings. There is no need to justify anything. Your feelings exist, and the red hat provides an opportunity to express them.

Yellow hat. Optimism. We try to find advantages and advantages, to identify hidden resources.

Black hat. Caution. Black hat is a mode of criticism and evaluation, it points out flaws and risks.

Green hat. Energy, life. The green hat is a mode of creativity, generating ideas, unconventional approaches and alternative points of view.

White hat. The white color makes you think of paper. In this mode, we focus on the information that we have or that is necessary to make a decision: only facts and figures.

Blue hat. Used at the beginning of discussions to pose a thinking problem and decide what we want to achieve as a result. This is a mode of observing and managing the thinking process itself (formulating goals, summing up results, etc.).

Issues for discussion:

1. Can we say that there is a rule of law state in Russia?
2. Do laws have the highest legal force?
3. Does the principle of separation of powers exist?
4. Mutual responsibility of citizens and the state?
5. Are there real guarantees of the rights and freedoms of citizens?
6. Does civil society exist in Russia?

Technological map of classes in the discipline "social studies"

subject: " Democracy, its basic values ​​and characteristics. Constitutional state»

GBPOU SPO College of Services No. 3

social studies teacher T.V. Blatner

Explanatory note

Training session “Democracy, its basic values ​​and characteristics. Rule of Law" is carried out as part of the study of the topic "Politics and power. State in the political system" In chapter " Politics as a social phenomenon» in the second year by profession 260807.01 Cook, pastry chef.

The study of this topic is relevant, as it ensures the formation of skills and knowledge that underlie personal and professional competencies.This lesson is conducted after studying theoretical issues and basic concepts related to the political sphere of society.

The purpose of the lesson: Improving knowledgeabout the political development of Russia by focusing on the problems of democracy and the rule of law.

Lesson objectives:

Educational:

Develop an understanding of the features of a democratic political regime;

Get acquainted with the history of the formation of democracy;

Find out the features of the modern development of democracy and the formation of the rule of law in modern Russia.

Educational:

Provide conditions for the formation of a scientific worldview

To promote the development of the ability to formulate thoughts orally and in writing

To promote the development of the ability to correctly summarize data and draw conclusions.

Educational:

Formation of an active life position

Formation of political literacy and civic position

Lesson type: Lesson in learning new knowledge

Lesson type: combined, with game elements

Basic teaching methods used in the lesson:

• verbal (explanation, conversation, story)
• visual (demonstration of presentation)
• problem-heuristic
• game method (voting)

Material, technical, educational and methodological equipment of the lesson:

Computer;

Multimedia projector;

Projection screen;

Presentation on the topic of the lesson;

Textbook “Social Studies”, A.G. Vazhenin; - M., 2012

Handouts for students

Expected Result:

Personal resultsstudying the topic are the following skills for students:

• Master the material presented in the lesson and learn to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.
• Development of motivation to study a section of the social science discipline"Politics as a social phenomenon"to independently continue studying this topic.

Interdisciplinary results(in four blocks):

Information block:

• Ability to use information and communication technologies.
• Willingness and ability to independently find information on the studied material.

Communication block:

• The ability to communicate in a group and interact during the lesson, to take other opinions into account.
• The ability to clearly, logically and accurately express one’s point of view and develop competent speech.

Self-organization:

• The ability to independently determine goals and plans for one’s work, and independently implement them.
• Possession of skills in cognitive, educational and research activities, the ability to independently search for methods for solving social and professional problems.

Self-education:

• The desire to independently obtain information and broaden one’s horizons, the willingness to improve oneself.

Subject resultsstudying the topic are the following skills:

• Mastering the material presented in the lesson and applying knowledge on the topic“Democracy, its basic values ​​and characteristics. Constitutional state"in practice, for the purpose of further successful socialization and professional training.

Metasubject connections:

Story :

Computer Science and ICT

Mathematics

Intradisciplinary connections:

Topics: “The concept of power. Types of public power. Political system, its internal structure", "Political regime. Typology of political regimes".

Slide captions:

Methodological development of a training session in the discipline of social studies

The term "democracy" literally means the power of the people, democracy.

Criteria for democracy: representation of interests, legitimate pluralism, participation of citizens in resolving political issues, enlightened choice, mutual responsibility of the government and the people.

Main components of the mechanism of democracy: legislative consolidation of human rights, parliamentarism, choice, adherence to the majority principle, multi-party system, loyal opposition, separation of powers, system of control over the actions of the authorities.

Principles of democracy. The principle of sovereignty of the people, the principle of equal rights of citizens to participate in the management of the state and society, the principle of decision-making by the majority and the subordination of the minority to the majority in their implementation, the principle of election of the main bodies of the state, the real participation of the people in government, real political equality, social justice, responsibility of the ruling elites before the people - these are the criteria that characterize the content of democracy.

The mechanism for forming democracy includes the following components:

a) legislative consolidation of basic economic, social and political human rights;

b) free, equal, direct, secret elections of representative governing bodies;

c) political pluralism, i.e. the presence of alternative ideologies of at least two political parties;

d) the existence of opposition;

e) separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial branches with their relative independence within the framework of legislatively established powers;

f) independence of the court.

Basic features of democracy.

Democracy- a political regime based on the method of collective decision-making with equal influence of participants on the outcome of the process or on its significant stages. Although this method is applicable to any social structure, today its most important application is the state, since it has great power. In this case, the definition of democracy is usually narrowed to one of the following signs:

Leaders are appointed by the people they lead through fair and competitive elections.

The people are the only legitimate source of power.

Society exercises self-government for the common good and satisfaction of common interests. Popular government requires ensuring a number of rights for every member of society. A number of values ​​are associated with democracy: legality, equality, freedom, the right to self-determination, human rights, etc.

Forms of democracy.

Democracy, as a system of democracy, is the universal basis for the political development of mankind in the modern era. The experience of this development allows us to distinguish several forms of democracy:

Direct democracy- a form of democracy based on political decision-making directly by all citizens without exception (for example, during a referendum).

Plebiscitary democracy- a form of democracy with strong authoritarian tendencies, in which the leader of the regime uses the approval of the masses as the main means of legitimizing his political decisions. The historical predecessor of direct and plebiscitary democracy was the so-called. "military democracy", based on elements of the tribal and communal system.

Representative or pluralistic democracy- a form of democracy in which citizens participate in making political decisions not personally, but through their representatives, elected by them and responsible to them.

Census democracy- a type of representative democracy, in which the right to vote (as a fundamental right guaranteeing participation in the political process) belongs to a limited circle of citizens. Depending on the nature of the restrictions, qualified democracy can be elitist (including liberal), class (proletarian, bourgeois democracy).

Democracy concepts.

Any democracy has its limitations, and often the freedom of some social groups significantly limits the living space of others. Therefore, there are different concepts of democracy. Let's look at some of them.

Liberal democracy concept assumes: recognition of the people as the subject of power; priority of individual freedom over society and the state; freedom of private property and entrepreneurship.

Collectivist democracy concept contrasts collectivist forms of life and understanding of rights and freedoms with liberal individualism; priority of the state and society over the individual. A type of collectivist democracy is socialist democracy.

The concept of pluralistic democracy. This concept inherited from the liberal such fundamental values ​​as separation of powers, respect for human rights, and personal freedom. Pluralistic democracy is preferred by most of the most developed countries in the world.

The concept of elite democracy. In accordance with it, power in the country is exercised by competing elites, and the participation of the people in governing the state is limited to the right to give preference to one or another elite claiming power or being in power.

There are other concepts of democracy that, due to the limited scope of this work, we do not have the opportunity to consider.

Democracy concepts.

1. The concept of democracy. Democracy is normative and empirical.

Principles of organization of empirical democracy.

1. Basic theories of democracy.
2. Direct and representative democracy.
3. Conditions and prerequisites for the existence of democracy and the path to transition to democracy.

І . World experience shows that the direction of modernization of the political system and social structure is the movement towards democracy. Democracy is the ideal that almost all countries in the world strive for. The British Prime Minister W. Churchill argued that democracy is a terrible thing, but humanity has not yet come up with anything better than it.

What is democracy? Finding out this is important not only in terms of understanding the essence of democracy, but also because so far not a single political system in the world has embodied its ideals. And the very concept of democracy is complex, contradictory, has specific national connotations, and is multifaceted. It is now used in many meanings - to characterize the type of state; forms of organization of any organization, movements; historical stage of the country's development, etc. So, what is democracy?

The concept of “democracy” was introduced into circulation in the 5th century BC. Greek scientist Herodotus and literally means “democracy” (demos - people + kratos - power). Concretizing its essence, American President A. Lincoln said that democracy is “government of the people, chosen by the people and for the people.”

The concept of democracy as democracy is normative and ideal. The essence of this concept is that the power of the people means self-government, freedom, equality, and the absence of political domination of the state as one of the forms of its organization. In other words, true democracy is incompatible with the state and political power, but this does not and cannot exist anywhere in real practice. The elimination of the state and the introduction of self-government is a utopia, at least in the foreseeable future. Democracy, as democracy by the people, is in many ways an ideal that has an important normative meaning. It acts as a guideline, a goal of political development. Czech President V. Havel said: “democracy in the full sense of the word has always been nothing more than an ideal. You can approach it like the horizon line - in the best or worst way, but it is impossible to achieve.”

Empirical real democracy implemented in practice differs significantly from normative democracy. Currently, democracy, as an organization of political and civil society, is something in between, balancing between self-government and political power. In some cases, democracy approaches self-government and merges with it, in others it is associated with strong political power.

self management

DEMOCRACY

political power

Nowadays, according to the American scientist R. Dahl, 20 countries of the world are democratic, and another 40 are approaching them. In all these countries, the democratic structure of society has its own shades, certain features, but they also have common features and principles. The most important features (indicators) of modern real democracy are:

1. Sovereignty of the people. It consists in the people realizing their main political essence - to be a source of power. The sovereignty of the people in modern democratic states means that citizens have the right to directly participate in the elections of representative bodies of power, remove them, pass laws, and control power through the associations they create and the media.

2. Legislative consolidation of broad economic, social, political human rights and freedoms, creation of a mechanism for their implementation.

Human rights are the recognized and guaranteed ability to perform certain actions in personal interests of one's own free will and to seek their protection. The guideline for rights and freedoms for all democratic countries is the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, adopted by the UN on December 10, 1948. It proclaims a wide range of personal, socio-economic, political and cultural rights and freedoms.

TO personal rights and freedoms include the right to life, personal integrity, including freedom from torture and cruelty; freedom of religion, movement, right to protection by law, etc.;

Socio-economic rights include the right to own property, freedom to choose a job, the right to rest and leisure, health care, and benefits for illness and old age.

Political rights and freedoms are represented by the right to freedom of opinion and expression, to receive and disseminate information, the right to unions, demonstrations, to participate in political and government affairs, to citizenship.

Socio-cultural rights – the right to education, satisfaction of cultural needs and protection of intellectual property and others.

3. Granting an extremely wide range of people the right to elect and be elected to state and public structures.

4. Free and strictly periodic elections. Their procedure and frequency are legally established. In this mechanism, elections become a means of influencing government by citizens, who thus defend their interests through a legal and peaceful change of power.

5. Resolution of issues by a majority with a firm guarantee of the rights of the minority. This means that the minority, recognizing the will of the majority, retains the opportunity to openly defend its point of view, propagate its opinion with the hope of achieving a numerical superiority in the future. This situation makes the majority unstable and does not allow its victory to develop into dictatorship and tyranny.

6. A combination of forms of direct democracy (referendum, plebiscite) and representative democracy (expression of the will of the people through the nomination of their representatives to elected bodies).

7. Real separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial with powers and responsibilities clearly defined by law. Moreover, each power is relatively independent and acts as a counterweight and a check on the other.

8. Multi-party system, and mainly the presence of at least two competing parties that control power, each other, preventing the usurpation of power by one political party. Rival parties act within the framework of the law and observe certain “rules of the game,” replacing each other in power without violence.

9. Pluralism, which manifests itself in a variety of views, the presence of alternative sources of information, and a free press.

10. Independence of the court. This guarantees objectivity in the consideration of all controversial issues and the protection of people's rights from any infringement.

There are other common features of real democracy. Taken together, they make it possible to ensure the real participation of the people in the management of state and public affairs, based on respect for the rights and freedoms of man and citizen.

Thus, democracy appears in two aspects: as an ideal, a norm and as a real empirical practice. Modern democracy is a combination of two tendencies moving towards each other, from ideal to reality and from reality to ideal.

Democracy is an organization of political and civil society that ensures democracy and the assertion of the rights and freedoms of citizens.

ІІ. In early historical periods, from Ancient Greece to the French bourgeois revolution, questions of democracy were reduced to doctrines about the forms of the state. In Ancient Greece and subsequently, democracy was understood as a form of organization of the state in which power was wielded not by one person (as in monarchy, tyranny, etc.) or by a group of persons (as in aristocracy, oligarchy, etc.), and a government in which all free citizens enjoy equal rights to govern. Nowadays, there are various theories of democracy in the scientific literature. The main criterion for their identification are two cardinal questions: “Who rules?” and “How do they rule?”

In accordance with these two criteria, they distinguish: collectivist, liberal, pluralistic theories of democracy, theories of direct, representative, political, social and other democracies.

Ideas collectivist democracies are contained in the works of socialists - utopians T. More, E Cabet, French enlighteners (especially J.-J. Rousseau), ideologists of communism V. Lenin, I. Stalin, theorists of modern communism.

Historically, ancient democracy was the first to gravitate towards the collectivist model. It was based on equality, the common interest of free citizens in maintaining slavery, which was predominantly common, joint, and a number of social privileges for free citizens. Ancient democracy was characterized by the substitution of elections by lot, the practice of ostracism (expulsion of undesirables), the actual identification of the people with the majority of the population (decisions were made by majority vote), as well as the unlimited power of the majority over the minority and the defenselessness of the individual in relation to the state. Examples of this are the collective sentencing to death of the philosopher Socrates, the expulsion of the philosopher Anaxagoras, etc. This democracy tended to degenerate into ochlocracy - the rule of the crowd, the mob, and then into dictatorship.

The ideas of collectivist democracy are reflected more clearly in the communist utopian teachings of T. More, E. Cabet, the works of J.–J. Rousseau. In particular, the theory of democracy by J.–J. Rousseau proceeds from the assumption that all power belongs to the people educated through voluntary fusion. The formation of a people as a whole means the complete alienation of the rights of everyone in favor of the entire community (See J.–J. Rousseau, Treatises. M. 1969, p. 161). From this moment on, the individual loses his rights, he does not need them, because the whole state takes care of its members, and citizens, in turn, are obliged to think about the good of the whole - the state.

With such democracy, contradictions and conflicts between individuals and the state are eliminated, and as a result, the basis for protests and private interests is eliminated. Particular interest is pathological and therefore it is suppressed. It is the people who have a common will and inalienable sovereignty. The people can only be represented by themselves, and not by elected representatives; they represent the laws and activities of the government. “If anyone,” wrote J.-J. Rousseau, “refuses to submit to the general will, then he will be forced to do so by the whole organism, and this means nothing more than that he will be forced by force to be free” (ibid., p. 164). A similar statement was repeated by the slogan that adorned the gates of the Soviet Solovetsky concentration camp in the 1930s. 20th century “With an iron hand we will drive all humanity to happiness!”

Ideas of J.J. Rousseau (the principle of popular sovereignty, direct voting, etc.) found their expression in the French Constitution of 1789 and served to justify the Jacobin terror.

The totalitarian orientation of the theory of democracy J.–J. Rousseau received further development and practical completion in Lenin's and Stalin's theories of democracy, as well as in real models of “socialist democracy”. The policy of implementing the ideas of socialist collectivist democracy led to the emergence of a new class - the nomenklatura, to totalitarianism, the suppression of all individual freedom, and terror against dissidents.

In general, collectivist theories of democracy are characterized by:

Denial of personal autonomy, viewing it as a wheel, a cog of a single national organism;

The primacy of the people in expressing the general will (the people want, the people demand, etc.);

Homogeneity, homogeneity of the people in composition, which eliminates the basis for conflicts;

Unlimited, absolute power of the majority over the minority, including the individual;

Elimination of the human rights problem itself, since there are no conflicts, and the whole state cares about the rights of everyone, etc.

The theories of collectivist democracy have shown their practical inconsistency and incompatibility with democracy. They lead to totalitarianism, suppression of individual freedom, and mass terror. The power of the people cannot be real without guaranteed individual freedom. Life has shown that the so-called “general will,” the general interests of the people,” is a myth that justifies the political domination of one person or group.

The ideas of personal autonomy, its primacy in relation to the people, their will, were developed in liberal theories of democracy. These theories are contained in the works of C. Montesquieu, E. Baighot, A. Tocqueville and others.

Unlike collectivist theories, which did not distinguish between the state, society and the individual, liberal theories highlight the individual. They give primary attention to the creation of institutional and other guarantees for individual freedom, preventing any suppression of the individual by power. These theories are characterized by:

Recognition of the individual as the primary, main source of power, the priority of human rights over the rights of the state;

Understanding freedom as the absence of restrictions, unwanted government interference, limiting the power of the majority over the minority, ensuring individual and group autonomy and freedom;

Limitation of the competence and sphere of activity of the state primarily to the protection of public order, the safety of citizens, social peace, its non-interference in the affairs of civil society, the priority of market self-regulation of society over the state;

Separation of powers, creation of checks and balances as a condition for effective control of citizens over the state, prevention of abuse of power. Back in the 18th century. C. Montesquieu noted that society is able to control only that power that is fragmented and whose individual parts are opposed to each other.

An intermediate position between the two above-mentioned theories is occupied by the third group of theories of democracy - pluralistic concepts. The authors of these theories are A. Bentley, G. Wallace, J. Madison, G. Laski, R. Dahl, as well as the Austrian political scientist J. Schumpeter.

Pluralistic theories proceed from the fact that not the individual, not the lone enthusiast, and not the people are the main driving forces of politics in a democratic state. Politics are determined by ruling elites. According to the authors of these theories, the people cannot act as the main subject of politics, since they represent a complex contradictory entity. He has two functions left: to choose the political leadership and to remove it. Pluralistic democracy is a form of government that gives all citizens the right to create numerous (hence pluralistic) independent centers of political influence (parties, fronts, blocs) and find compromise solutions in the competitive struggle of these groups.

Pluralistic theories more realistically reflect the existing situation in society. However, they absolutize the group differentiation of society and consider competition and the balance of group interests as the basis of democracy. Such concepts essentially justify mafia and lobby groups, limit the role of elected bodies (for example, parliament), etc. This is their disadvantage.

Thus, there are different theories of democracy. Their presence is primarily associated with historical alternative directions in the formation of democracy as an idea and practice. It appears that the optimal practice is one that combines elements of collectivist, liberal and pluralist democracy.

Theories of collectivist, liberal, pluralist democracy answer the question “Who rules?”

ІІІ. Depending on how the people participate in governance, who directly performs power functions and how, democracy is divided into direct and representative.

Straight(direct) democracy is a form and organization of government in which the people or their representatives directly participate in the preparation, discussion and decision-making at meetings, congresses, and forums. This form is more characteristic of ancient democracies, the people's council in Ancient Polotsk and Novgorod. Now, in reality, it is embodied in small teams (student groups, streams, teams, small enterprises), when it is possible to gather everyone and collectively openly solve pressing issues. In the modern world, direct democracy is found mainly at the level of local government, for example in American and Swiss communities, in Israeli kibbutzim, etc.

The theory of direct democracy is also expressed in the concepts of participatory - plebiscitary democracy and the theory of imperative mandate.

Participatory democracy (democracy of participation, complicity) is all types of people’s participation in political life, with the aim of influencing decision-making (strikes, elections, rallies, letters, orders, etc.). Its supporters B. Guttenberg, D. Nolen, J. Schumpeter substantiate the need for the participation of broad sections of the population not only in the elections of their representatives, in referendums, meetings, but also directly in the political process - in the preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions, as well as control over their implementation. Such participation is necessary, according to the authors, in all areas, and above all in those that have a personal interest for the citizen: in the workplace, at the place of residence, in the field of leisure, and others. In principle, this is the correct approach, because there are no areas in society that are outside politics and do not allow democratic participation. The main goals of participation are the comprehensive democratization of society, as well as social emancipation and self-realization of the individual.

The types of direct democracy include theory and actual practice plebiscitary democracy (from the word plebiscite, referendum). It is similar to direct democracy. Their differences are that direct democracy presupposes the participation of citizens at all the most important stages of the process of power (preparation, decision-making, control over their implementation), while in plebiscitary democracy the possibilities for direct influence are limited. The population in a referendum votes only “for” or “against”, and everything else is done without it.

Referendums, as a type of direct democracy, have entered the political life of sovereign Belarus. In the republic in the first half of the 90s of the twentieth century, three referendums were held.

On March 17, 1991, in Belarus and a number of other republics of the former Soviet Union, the question was put to a referendum: “Do you consider it necessary to preserve the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a renewed federation of equal sovereign republics, in which the rights and freedoms of any nationality will be fully guaranteed?” 82.6% of those voting voted “for” maintaining such a Union, 16% voted “against”

At the referendum on May 14, 1995, 83.1% of those voting were in favor of giving the Russian language equal status with the Belarusian language; 75% voted for the establishment of new state symbols. To the question: “Do you support the actions of the President of the Republic of Belarus aimed at economic integration with the Russian Federation?” 82.4% were in favor. To the question: “Do you agree to the need to amend the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus, which provides for the possibility of early termination of the powers of the Supreme Council by the President of the Republic of Belarus in cases of systematic or gross violation of the Constitution?”, 77.6% of referendum participants answered positively. In total, 54.5% of registered voters took part in this referendum.

The third referendum took place on November 24, 1996. 7 questions were submitted to it - 4 questions were initiated by the President of the Republic of Belarus and 3 questions by the Supreme Council. The President submitted the following questions to a popular vote: “Move the Independence Day of the Republic of Belarus (Republic Day) to July 3 – the Day of the Liberation of Belarus from the Nazi invaders in the Great Patriotic War” (“for” - 88.18%, “against” - 10.46% ); “Adopt the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus of 1994 with amendments and additions (new edition of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus) proposed by the President of the Republic of Belarus A.G. Lukashenko” (“for” – 70.45%, “against” – 9.39%); “Are you in favor of free, without restrictions, purchase and sale of land?” (“for” – 15.35%, “against” – 82.88%); “Do you support the abolition of the death penalty in the Republic of Belarus?” (“yes” – 17.93%, “against” – 80.44%).

The Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus proposed the following questions: “Adopt the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus with amendments and additions proposed by deputies of the communist and agrarian factions” (“for” - 7.93%). “against” 71.2%)); “Are you in favor of having the heads of local executive authorities elected directly by residents of the relevant administrative-territorial units?” (“for” – 28.4%, “against” – 69.92%); “Do you agree that funding for all branches of government should be carried out transparently and from the state budget?” (“for” – 32, 18%, “against” –65, 85%).

On October 17, 2004, the President of the Republic of Belarus submitted to a national referendum the question “Do you allow the first President of the Republic of Belarus A. G. Lukashenko to participate as a candidate for President of the Republic of Belarus in the presidential elections and do you accept part one of Article 81 of the Constitution of the Republic of Belarus in the next editors:

“The President is elected for five years directly by the people of the Republic of Belarus on the basis of universal, free, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.”? 79.42% of voters from their total list were in favor on this issue.

Plebiscitary democracy, especially when there is ambiguity in the wording of issues submitted to a referendum or plebiscite, is an important factor in manipulating the will of the people. At the same time, referendums have become an integral part of the political life of many countries, incl. and Belarus.

Direct democracy includes theory and practice imperative mandate in force in the United States. It presupposes the obligation of elected representatives to vote strictly in accordance with the instructions of the voters, their will. The Electoral College of the President of the United States, who are obliged to cast their votes for the candidate who wins the relevant states, has the nature of an imperative mandate. An imperative mandate seems to preserve the will of voters, not allowing its bearers to participate in the discussion and adoption of compromise solutions.

In general, according to supporters of direct, immediate democracy, only it represents true democracy and allows for a more complete expression of the will and interests of the people. Its advantages are that it provides:

Strong legitimization of the authorities;

Ensures the fullest participation of the people in governance;

Increases the political stability of society and management efficiency;

Expands the intellectual potential of political decisions through the participation of citizens, increases the likelihood of their optimization;

Develops social activity of the population, promotes free self-realization of the individual, its development as a whole;

Provides effective control over political institutions and officials, prevents abuse of power, separation of the ruling elite from the people, and bureaucratization of officials.

However, direct democracy also has a number of disadvantages: firstly, it is characterized by low efficiency of decisions made due to the insufficient competence of citizens participating in decision-making, as well as minimal responsibility of officials, since the most important decisions are made by a wide range of non-professionals, not controlled by anyone and not bearing responsibility for it;

secondly, it increases the danger of totalitarianism or populist authoritarianism due to the people’s commitment to ideological influences and their tendency to egalitarianism, infringement of freedom at the expense of equality;

thirdly, it creates difficulties and is an expensive procedure in practical implementation;

fourthly, it does not allow attracting the majority of citizens to systematic participation in government without coercion, violation of personal freedom, since the bulk of the population does not want to voluntarily seriously engage in politics;

Theories and practical implementation help overcome such shortcomings representative(representative) democracy. It presupposes competent and responsible representative government to the people through their elected representatives - deputies, delegates, members of the bureau and other representative bodies.

Representative democracy allows for a clearer implementation of the principle of responsibility at all levels of government and government, while at the same time, with it, the principle of citizen participation is shaded into the background, although in general it is not rejected, because without recognition of the people as the source and supreme controller of power, democracy is impossible. The will of the people is expressed directly in elections and in the delegation of their powers to deputies. Relations between the people and their representatives are built on the basis of control (through meetings, reports, etc.), trust, and constitutional restrictions on the competence of elected authorities. Representative democracy finds its expression in the development of parliamentarism, various types of representation, and in the election of the president as a representative of the people.

Varieties of theories of representative democracy are the concepts of elite, systemic and corporate democracy.

According to the theory elitist In democracy, real power should belong to the political elite, and the people should have the right to periodic, mainly electoral, control over its composition.

Democracy in this case comes down to a method of forming power, the advantage of which compared to other forms of government is to ensure transparency, competitive struggle of elites and their replacement in the process of popular elections. Elite democracy is not about expanding the direct participation of the masses in the political process, but about creating effective mechanisms for recruiting an effective, efficient elite controlled by the people.

Particular importance is given to the development of normative prerequisites for representative democracy theories of democracy N. Luman. According to N. Luhmann, we are in an infinitely open, extremely complex and essentially uncertain world. In these conditions, politics must constantly take care of developing a system of alternative foundations and criteria for the decisions it makes.

Supporters corporate Democracies view it as a predominantly consensual, non-competitive rule by the leaders of large production corporations, employees and entrepreneurs, as well as parties, with the arbitration role of the state. At the same time, corporations, in exchange for certain self-restraints, receive the right to represent all workers in a particular industry. Corporatists deny elite competition, putting in its place harmonious, consensus methods of decision-making.

It should be noted that in real practice, corporatism has found wide practical application in regulating social relations - issues of wages and labor protection, working hours, social security, when cohesive social groups (for example, the military, intelligence services have achieved certain privileges). However, it cannot be extended to the entire state structure, because it infringes on the rights of the individual in favor of large associations of bureaucracy.

Representative democracy also has its advantages and disadvantages. Among its main advantages, it should be noted that:

firstly, representative democracy guarantees greater political stability, order, protects society from momentary mass hobbies and incoming moods, ideological irrationalism, egalitarian (state, national) aspirations of broad sections of the people;

secondly, it ensures a rational organization of the political system with a clear division of labor, higher, compared to direct democracy, competence and responsibility of decision makers.

The disadvantages of representative democracy are:

firstly, it actually removes the people from power in the intervals between elections and thereby moves away from democracy; secondly, it gives rise to a complex hierarchical management system, bureaucratization and oligarchization of power, separation of deputies and officials from the people; thirdly, it gives rise to priority influence on politics by the most powerful interest groups and the possibility of bribery; fourthly, it intensifies the growth of authoritarian tendencies in the state due to the gradual pushing aside of legislators by the executive branch; fifthly, it makes the legitimacy of the government weak due to the alienation of the people from it; sixth, it infringes on the political equality of opportunities for everyone to participate in management and decision-making; seventhly, it allows you to manipulate the opinion of the people.

Depending on the nature of equality ensured by the state, they distinguish: political, social, despotic, totalitarian, constitutional, popular and other democracies.

Political democracy is a democracy that presupposes formal equality, equality of rights. Social – based on equality of actual opportunities for citizens to participate in government. The goal of creating such democracy is set by Western social democratic parties.

Despotic democracy presupposes absolutism, unlimited power of the majority, and totalitarianism presupposes the complete subordination of the individual to the majority, the establishment of constant comprehensive control over it. Constitutional– puts the power of the majority within a certain framework, limits its powers and functions with the help of the Constitution and the separation of powers. General– in it the entire adult population has equal political rights.

Thus, modern political life is characterized by the presence of a large number of theories of democracy, which have advantages and disadvantages. The experience of many democratic states shows that the negative aspects of a particular concept can be neutralized. Really functioning democracy in industrial countries tends to combine, to a greater or lesser extent, the ideas of direct and representative democracy in practice. Direct democracy is implemented there at the local, partially at the production level, and representative democracy is implemented on the scale of the entire society, in the form of parliamentarism. Parliamentarism is a system of government that is based on the separation of powers and the supremacy of the power of parliament delegated to it by the people. Parliamentarism includes various types of representation - territorial, party, corporate, ethnic. The democratic mechanism is based on the competitive rivalry of numerous parties and interests.

IV. History shows that democracy is a blessing only when it meets a certain level of necessary prerequisites and conditions. In the absence of these conditions, democracy can be worse for citizens and society than authoritarianism. Some authoritarian and totalitarian regimes achieved more equitable distribution and more effective protection of the safety of citizens than weak or corrupt democracies.

For the normal functioning of democracy, internal and external prerequisites are needed.

Internal Prerequisites include economic, social, political and cultural conditions.

Economic conditions assume, first of all, the presence of a market and a competitive economy. Actually, democracy itself is a semblance of a political market with its competition, competitiveness, and the desire to “sell” ideas, views, programs, and positions more profitably. For such a political market to exist, there needs to be a differentiation (and therefore competition) of political interests. They arise on the basis of diverse forms of ownership - private, state, joint stock, cooperative and others that exist in market conditions. Diverse forms of ownership not only differentiate the interests of citizens, but also create conditions for freedom of choice and economic independence of a person. Only an independent, economically free citizen can make a free choice. And vice versa, when the means of production are monopolized and are in the same hands, be it the state or a monopoly, there is no freedom of choice for those working for this owner.

A market economy prevents the concentration of economic and political power in one hand, and it does not matter who the market subject is - a private or collective owner. The main thing is that they are endowed with the rules of free enterprise and management activities. It is this situation that ensures autonomy, independence of the individual, stimulates the initiative to make choices and bear responsibility for them.

An important economic prerequisite for democracy is also a high level of industrial and economic development of society as a whole, its urbanization. Industrial development makes it possible to provide the country with material and spiritual benefits, and relieves it of shortages - the scourge of undemocratic regimes. Moreover, it leads to an increase in the urban population, which is more prepared for democratization than the rural population.

Another necessary condition for democracy is associated with a high level of economic development - the development of means of mass communications (railways and highways, telephone, radio, television, press, etc.). All this educates the population to a greater extent and facilitates the process of participation in a democratic state.

To social The conditions of democracy include ensuring a relatively high level of well-being for citizens. High well-being makes it possible to mitigate social conflicts, reach agreement, and help overcome social inequality. When there is great wealth polarization in a society between the poor and the very rich, a democratic form of government is excluded. Democracy is also impossible with an equalized centralized distribution of goods in conditions of general poverty and overcrowding.

It is especially important in these conditions to have a solid middle class, which includes wealthy and highly qualified citizens and, above all, layers of entrepreneurs. The middle class forms the basis, the core of stability of interests in a democratic society. He plays the role of a kind of anchor, which does not allow society to sail towards dangers and social upheavals. The widespread belief that a socially homogeneous society is a guarantor of stability and prosperity is incorrect. This society is fraught with a destructive social explosion, since imaginary unity leads to the silencing of the conflict, its artificial containment, and the accumulated energy of destruction.

Political The prerequisites for democracy are the presence of a rule of law, civil society, total pluralism, and developed self-government. If they exist, people freely define their interests, create associations and groups depending on these interests, and express their attitude to power through choice and control over it. In conditions when the state seeks to penetrate into all spheres of public life, there is no room left for the free expression of the will of citizens. It demonstrates a totalitarian system.

Among the conditions necessary for the establishment of democracy, an important place belongs to the factor culture. The competence of a person’s political judgments, his intellectual development, freedom of thinking, and sense of personal dignity directly depend on a high level of culture, education, and literacy. The lack of such education leads to irrational behavior, individualism, group egoism, and unwillingness to compromise. In addition, a high level of culture contributes to the formation of democracy, consistent with national traditions and national identity.

The combination of the democratic process and national culture protects society from directly borrowing the experience of others, ensures the strength of democracy, and is a guarantor of public support.

A particularly important catalyst for democratic processes is a high level of political culture. It creates a politically active personality and accelerates democratic processes.

Foreign policy conditions also play a big role in the formation and development of democracy. These include, firstly, the presence of a favorable international situation, friendly neighbors, the influence of example, etc., and secondly, direct political, economic, cultural and informational impact on the society of any other country. An example of this could be the spread of the American type of democracy to some countries (Germany, Japan, Korea). However, it should be noted that a model of social structure introduced from outside, including democracy, will not be durable and viable. This requires formed internal prerequisites, which in itself is a difficult and lengthy process.

The stability of the existence of democracy is greatly influenced by the method of transition to it from non-democratic forms of organization of power. According to the American political scientist S.P. Huntington, minimal use of violence strengthens democracy. Conversely, a viable democracy cannot be created through revolutionary means, since opposition forces that come to power establish even more repressive regimes.

To date, several transition models to democracy: classical, cyclical, dialectical, Chinese, liberal.

The classic path of democratization is considered British way. Its essence was the constant limitation of monarchical power and the expansion of the rights of citizens and parliament. First, citizens receive civil (personal) rights, then political and social rights. Electoral qualifications are constantly being limited and eliminated. Parliament becomes the supreme legislative authority and controls the government.

Cyclic the model is characterized by the alternation of democracy and authoritarian forms of government with a positive attitude towards democracy by the political elite. In this case, governments elected by the people are either overthrown by the military, or they themselves give up power for fear of losing it, faced with growing unpopularity and opposition from the opposition. This model is widespread in Latin America, Asia and Africa. It is a manifestation of the weak maturity of the internal preconditions of democracy, the low political culture of the masses, and can be protracted and difficult.

More promising than cyclic dialectical model of democratization. When it is implemented, the transition to democracy is carried out under the influence of sufficiently mature internal prerequisites: a high degree of industrialization, a large middle class, a high level of education, etc. External factors also have an impact - the presence of neighboring democratic states. The growth of these factors leads to the collapse of non-democratic regimes and a transition to democratic forms of government occurs. However, the return of authoritarian rule is possible here, but under the influence of the prevailing preconditions it is short-lived. Italy, Greece, Spain, Austria, Chile and other countries have gone this way.

Chinese The model of transition to democracy is characterized by maintaining a strong center and using it to carry out radical economic reforms, providing for the development of a market economy open to the outside world. The implementation of economic reforms is combined with the expansion of personal rights of citizens, liberating them from totalitarian control. China and Vietnam are developing this way.

Path liberal transition to democracy is typical for the former socialist states of Europe and the USSR. This is the way to quickly introduce democratic principles, the so-called “shock therapy”. However, in the absence of internal prerequisites for its implementation, it led to a deterioration in the social situation of people, economic decline, the collapse of the USSR, Yugoslavia, etc.

The Republic of Belarus is following its own path - by maintaining strong presidential power and gradually increasing democratic potential.

Democracy (from the Greek Demokratia - power of the people) is a form of government, characterized by the participation of citizens in government, their equality before the law, and the provision of political rights and freedoms to individuals. The form of implementation of democracy is most often a republic or a parliamentary monarchy with the division and interaction of powers, with a developed system of popular representation. Democracy is a multifaceted phenomenon, which in political science is considered as

• · form of political regime;
• · the principle of organizing public life and the activities of political parties;

the achieved level of ensuring the rights, responsibilities and freedoms of citizens, their participation in governance.

The basic principle of democracy is the recognition of the only source of power - the power of the people. This power is designed to ensure the will of the people, election, accountability, the rule of law, equality and freedom of citizens, their active participation in solving fundamental problems in the life of society, the party, and the organization.

The constitutional features of democracy are the following:

• · legal recognition and institutional expression of sovereignty, the supreme power of the people. The sovereignty of the people is expressed in the fact that they choose their representatives and can periodically replace them, and in many countries they also have the right to directly participate in the development and adoption of laws through popular initiatives and referendums;
• · periodic election of the main bodies of the state;
• · equal rights of citizens to participate in government. This principle requires equality of voting rights. It also assumes freedom to create political parties and other associations to express the will of citizens, freedom of opinion, and the right to information.

making decisions based on the decision of the majority of those participating and subordinating the minority to the majority in their implementation. These requirements are the minimum conditions that allow us to talk about the presence of a democratic form of government in a particular country. However, real political systems based on the general principles of democracy differ very significantly from each other, for example, ancient and modern democracy, American and Swiss democracies, etc.

There are various classifications and types of democracies, for example ochlocratic democracy, liberal democracy, socialist democracy, etc.

The impact of economic and social factors on the state structure is largely determined by the dominant political culture in society. Political culture is the implementation of political knowledge, values ​​accepted in society, patterns of behavior of a social subject in a historically defined system of political relations and political activity.

According to a number of scientists, democracy is characterized by the highest type of political culture—a culture of citizenship,” in which the combination of freedom of members of society and the stability of the political system is most widely ensured. At the same time, different democratic states recognize different values, and there are different symbols of democracy.