The Qing dynasty ruled in China. Chinese dynasties

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Xia era - the first dynasty in Chinese history

The Xia era is the first dynasty in Chinese history.It existed from the 21st century to the 16th century BC. e. During the Xia era, there were 14 generations, it lasted approximately 500 years, and 17 monarchs ruled during the Xia era. The center of Xia was located at the junction of the southern tip of what is now Shanxi Province and the western end of what is now Henan Province.

The founder of the Xia era, Great Yu, was a hero who bravely fought against floods. His merit is the restoration of peace in the Celestial Empire. According to legend, he successfully tamed the floods, received the support of various tribes, as a result of which he created Xia. The creation of the Xia era marked the end of the centuries-old period of the primitive communal system and the formation of the institution of private property. Since then, China has entered the era of the slave system.

The final stage of the Xia era was characterized by political unrest, which exacerbated class contradictions. The last monarch of Xia, Jie, having ascended the throne, did not undertake reforms, but lived in luxury and idleness. All day long he did nothing but drink and play with his concubines, not paying attention to the aspirations of the common people, who suffered poverty and ruin. He ordered the execution of everyone who approached him with petitions. In this regard, the neighboring kingdoms, one after another, moved away from Xia. One of them - Shang, taking advantage of the opportunity of Xia's weakening, conquered him. , began to go to war on Xia Jie died while on the run. Thus ended the Xia era.

There is debate among historians about whether the Xia era actually existed in history. This dispute is due to the fact that very little reliable historical material about the Xia era has reached our time. However, in the famous historical chronicle "Historical Notes" in the section "Xia Era" the Xia hereditary system is clearly described. Archaeologists hope that fragments of Xia material culture will be discovered in order to reconstruct the true history of it. Since 1959, Chinese archaeologists have conducted research into the cultural layer of the Xia era, which was the prelude to comprehensive excavations of the cultural Xia. Currently, many scholars believe that the ruins of Erlitou in Henan Province, where valuable materials were discovered, are the main site for the study of the Xia culture. According to accurate data, the ruins of Erlitou date back to approximately 1900 BC. e. those. just during the reign of Xia. To date, there is not yet sufficient material that directly proves the existence of the Xia culture, but the discovered historical materials have already greatly contributed to the work of searching for traces of the Xia era.

The tools that were discovered at the ruins of Erlitou were made mainly of stone. It is known that at that time objects made from animal bones and shells were also in use. Traces of wooden tools have been preserved on the foundations and walls of the tombs. Although in those days the Chinese used only primitive tools, they worked hard, developed agriculture with all their might, and fought against natural disasters. Although large-sized bronze items have not yet been discovered, knives, cutlasses, chisels and bronze items have been discovered in Erlitou. Ceramic and jade items and stone tools were also discovered. Those times were characterized by a flourishing of handicraft production.

Ancient books contain references to the Xia era calendar, which has attracted special attention from researchers. The most important historical section on the Xia calendar is contained in the book Dadai Liji. This section indicates that in the Xia era, people were able to determine the months of the year based on the movement of the constellation Ursa Major. This is the earliest calendar in China. The document described the positions of the constellations, contained climatic and natural information, and also made records of calendar activities and political events in accordance with the 12 months of the year. The document to a certain extent reflected the level of development of agriculture during the Xia era. This is valuable material for studying the development of science and technology in ancient China.

The first dynasty, information about which is preserved in sources - the Shang era

Chinese scholars believe that the Xia era is the earliest dynasty of ancient China. However, all historical materials concerning the Xia era were compiled on the basis of ancient legends in subsequent periods in the years and so far no convincing evidence has been found about the real existence of Xia. in archaeological excavations. The first dynasty of ancient China, the existence of which was confirmed by archaeological material, was the Shang era. Next we will tell you about the Shang era.

The Shang era was founded in the 16th century BC. e. and ended in the 11th century BC. e. Her reign lasted approximately 600 years. In the early years of the Shang, the capital of this dynasty was moved more than once. Ultimately, the Shang capital was established in the area of ​​Yin (near the present city of Anyang, Henan Province). The results of archaeological research prove that in the first years of the Shang era, Chinese civilization was at a high level of development, evidence of this is the discovered inscriptions on turtle shells and animal bones, as well as bronze items. .

Inscriptions on turtle shells and animal bones were discovered by chance. At the beginning of the 20th century, a peasant from Xiaotun, located northwest of Nanyang in Henan Province, sold turtle shells and animal bones that he accidentally found at the market. One scientist noticed that they were carved with ancient writings, so a search was initiated in the area. After a little time, scientists and archaeologists decided that these were proto-hieroglyphs of the Shang era. It must be said that the area around the village of Xiaotun was the capital of the Shang-Yin dynasty.

Discovery and excavation of the Yin ruins is the most important archaeological site of the 20th century in China. Since 1928, when scientists and archaeologists began excavations, many valuable historical monuments have been discovered here. The inscriptions on turtle shells and animal bones were ancient hieroglyphs. In the Shang era, the monarch always turned to Heaven before making a decision. Turtle shells and animal bones were used as cult objects in order to record a question to the deity; the fortuneteller also carved his name and the date of fortune telling on them. The bones were then heated, causing cracks to appear, which were called "zhao" in Chinese. The fortune teller judged the results of fortune telling based on their shape of the cracks. After this, the bones and shells were kept as official historical documents.

In 1928, near the city of Anyang (Henan Province), the site of the ancient capital of the Shang kingdom (Yin is another name) was excavated. To date, during excavations of an ancient settlement from the Shang-Yin dynasty, which existed until 1027 BC, only 1 million 60 thousand-plus turtle shells and oracle bones have been found. Among them, some are preserved completely, and some are in fragments. The fortune-telling inscriptions have also been fully or partially preserved. According to the data, more than 4 thousand different hieroglyphs have already been discovered on these animal bones, of which 3 thousand have been studied; in the final version, according to the consensus of opinion, more than 1000 hieroglyphs were identified. The remaining hieroglyphs either cannot be read or generate different interpretations among scientists. And yet, we still learn about politics, economic life, culture and other areas of life of the Shang Dynasty thanks to these thousand hieroglyphs. The first book devoted to the study of inscriptions on the bones of sacrificial animals, published in 1913, is a book called “Tie Yun Can Gui.” Another special book, A Study of Bone Inscriptions, published by the famous historian and literati Guo Mozhuo in 1929, is considered the main study on the subject. Currently, authoritative scientists in the field of research on bone inscriptions are Professor of Beijing University Qiu Xigui, Professor of the Institute of Chinese History Li Xueqin and others.

In addition to the inscriptions on the bones, bronze ritual vessels from the Shang Dynasty have also reached us. Bronze casting technology at that time had already reached a high level. To date, thousands of bronze vessels have already been discovered at the Shan-Yin site, and among them is a bronze tripod, a richly ornamented “simuu” vessel (height 133 cm, weight 875 kg, length 110 cm, width 78 cm) --- the largest example of ancient Chinese bronze.

The period of the Shang Dynasty is characterized by the development of an aristocratic society, the main social structure of which was the family. During this period, the Chinese already knew how to grow silkworms and knew silk fabrics. Since then, Chinese history has entered a civilized era.

Western Zhou, Chunqiu and Zhanguo period

The eras of the Xia and Shang dynasties were replaced by the Zhou era.This is the third era of Chinese antiquity, beginning in 1027 BC. In 256 BC. Zhou was replaced by the Qin dynasty. The Zhou era lasted 770 years. The Zhou border is set back to 771 BC. Shan capitals

east, in the city of Luo-i (present-day Luoyang). First period --- Early (Western Zhou;Ⅺ V. --- 771 BC) second period --- Late (Eastern Zhou; 771 --- 256 BC) Eastern Zhou is divided into the Chunqiu and Zhanguo periods.

Western Zhou lasted from 1027 to 771 BC. and lasted 257 years. After moving the capital to the city of Hao (currently the northwestern region of Chang'an, Shanxi Province), the first Western Zhou monarch, the son of Wen-wan (his name was Fa), who went down in history under the name of Wu-wan, led the troops in the battle At Muye, he defeated the army of the last Shang ruler, Zhou Xin. Soon after the victory over Shang, Wu-wan died, leaving his brother Zhou-gong as ruler-regent under his young son Cheng-wan. It was Zhou Gong who successfully solved the problem of consolidating the power of the Zhou people. He made campaigns to capture new territories.

The so-called system of “well fields” (“jingtian”) is associated with the existence of communal land ownership and the practice of land redistribution in early Zhou China.

The Chunqiu ("Spring and Autumn") period lasted from 770 to 476 BC. e. As the economy developed and the country's population grew, a struggle for the hegemony of individual kingdoms began. The situation in the country has changed. There were also changes in the economy: iron agricultural tools appeared. Plowing with oxen was common. Irrigation developed rapidly. Agricultural productivity has increased. The Chunqiu period is characterized by the fragmentation of the country, engulfed in internecine wars.

During the Chunqiu period, the first philosopher and teacher in Chinese history was born --- Kun Tzu, i.e. Confucius (551--- 479 BC). Kong Tzu put forward his own theoretical framework regarding ethics and socio-political life. Based on the Zhou model of ideological values ​​and the priority of ethical standards, he proposed the principle of constant self-improvement as the basis for successful development.

Let us recall that, according to tradition, from the beginning of the creation of the influential principalities of Zhao, Han and Wei, which divided among themselvesⅤ V. the powerful principality of Jin, and before the unification of the seven strongest principalities in China, the Zhanguo period lasted.

During the Zhangguo (Warring or Warring States) period, the situation in the country changed greatly. There were 7 main principalities in China: Qin, Chu, Han, Zhao, Wei, and Qi. During this period, reforms and innovations took place in these principalities. Radical reforms took place in the Principality of Qin; they were conducted by Shang Yang (d. 338 BC). They contributed to the sharp strengthening of the state and its troops.

With the entry of China into the period of Chunqiu and Zhanguo, following the development of the productive forces of society, great changes occurred in the economy and culture, which in turn caused the rise of philosophical and scientific thought. This period is rightfully considered the “golden age” of Chinese culture. The “rivalry of all schools” observed during this period on the ideological front began around the end of the Chunqiu period, reached its peak in the middle of the Zhanguo period, and ended at the end of this period. If we talk about “all schools”, i.e. about the existing philosophical directions, then Ban Gu in the section “Brief information about philosophers” (Zhuzi lyue, Han-shu, ch. 30) reduces them to ten directions, among which the main ones were six, called by Sima Tan “six schools”: the school of “service people” (“rujia”, in translated literature called the school of Confucians), the school of Mohists - “mojia”, the school of Taoists - “daojia”, the school of “legalists” (legists) - “Fajia”, the school of “nominalists” - “Mingjia” (often also called the school of sophists) and the school of “supporters of the doctrine of yin and yang” (natural philosophers) - “Yinyangjia”. The “competition of all schools” on the ideological front during the Chunqiu-Zhangguo period and the features of the philosophical struggle that took place show that the development of ancient Chinese philosophy entered a new, important historical stage. The content and forms of philosophical struggle during this period had a profound impact on all philosophy of the period after the Qin and Han dynasties. Hence the need to study the philosophical ideas of the Chunqiu-Zhangguo period as a basis for studying the history of Chinese philosophy.

From the beginning of 230 BC. The prince of the Qin principality Ying Zheng began to unite the entire country. In 9 years, having destroyed 6 principalities, he united the country into an empire in 221 BC. e. Thus, as a result of successful wars, the era of feudal fragmentation ended, and the entire Celestial Empire ended up in the hands of Ying Zheng.

First Imperial Dynasty of China --- Qin

More than 2 thousand years passed before, in 221 BC. e. The first centralized state in Chinese history was created --- empire Qin,which is important for the history of China.

Period from 255 to 222 BC. e. is the Zhanguo period. By the end of the 3rd century. BC e. The Principality of Qin (Shanxi Province) strengthened, which waged successful wars with other principalities, and then destroyed the Zhou Dynasty and formed the first centralized despotism. Ying Zheng pursued a firm policy of unifying the country, which was necessary in connection with the development of agriculture and trade. The Chinese fought a lot with the Huns, the nomads who inhabited Mongolia. The Huns had powerful, highly mobile cavalry. The raids of nomads devastated the northern provinces of China, and the fight against them presented significant difficulties for the Chinese army, since the Chinese had few cavalry. Usually the Huns easily escaped the attack and retreated deep into Mongolia until the Chinese army stopped pursuing due to lack of food and returned back. Following this, the Huns launched new raids from the place where they were least expected. In 221 BC. e. Zheng managed to defeat all his opponents and complete the unification of the country. The prince of the Qin principality Ying Zheng became the first ruler of China, proclaiming himself the first emperor, i.e. "Qin Shihuang Di", which translated means "the first sacred emperor of Qin."

The unification of China had great importance for Chinese history. The emperor created a coherent system of centralized administration. The entire country was divided into 36 large regions, the boundaries of which did not coincide with the outlines of the previous kingdoms and principalities. And at their head were “junshou” (governors). The regions were divided into counties --- "xian" headed by "xianlings", and counties ("xian") into volosts ("xiang") and smaller units --- "tins". In each "tina" there were 10 communities --- "li". All peasants of the empire received plots of land. During the reign of Qin Shihuang Di, large construction works: postal routes were built, irrigation systems were created, and defensive structures were erected.

Another important cultural contribution after the unification of China was the unification of writing. Before the Qin Dynasty, various principalities had their own writings. Because of this, there was an obstacle to cultural exchange. After the unification under Qin rule, "xiaozhuan" (one of the types of Chinese ancient writing) became the generally accepted writing system. The development of the Chinese character was legalized, which played an important role in the development of culture.

In addition, during the Qin Dynasty, a unified system of weights and measures was introduced. The first emperor also introduced a unified currency in order to create favorable conditions for economic development and strengthen the central government.

In 213 BC. e. By order of Qin Shihuang, all ancient books were burned, and in 212 BC. executed 460 of the emperor's most active ideological opponents from among the Confucians. Back at the end of the 4th century. BC e. To protect against the attacks of the Huns, the principalities of Yin, Zhou and Qin began to build a large defensive wall. The remains of this wall have not survived. In 214 BC. e. The Chinese began construction of the Pian-chen ("border wall") wall. The Great Wall of China begins at the old Chinese fortress-customs Shanhaiguan and goes west, along mountain ranges, along the banks of rivers and ends at the Jiayuguan fortress, near the Richhofen ridge. The Great Wall is an earthen rampart reinforced or lined with stone and bricks. At irregular intervals on the wall, quadrangular two-story watchtowers with internal staircases were erected. The construction of the Great Wall speaks of the high level of military engineering in ancient China. During the Qin Empire, strategic roads were also built, as well as a waterway - the Grand Canal.

During the reign of the Qin dynasty, the territory of the state increased; it now included a significant part of China. The entire burden of waging wars, building the Great Wall, palaces, roads, etc. fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who were subjected to cruel exploitation. The consequence of this was large peasant uprisings, under the blows of which the Qin dynasty fell.

Han Dynasty

The Han Empire did not arise immediately after it began in 206 BC. The Qin dynasty ceased to exist.The founder of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang (Gaozu), assumed the title of emperor in 202 BC.

In 199 BC. Construction began on the Weiyanggong palace complex in the new Han capital of Chang'an. Gaozu strengthened the central government and set a course for restoring the country's prosperity. 143 fiefs were created in the Celestial Empire. Each of the owners of the inheritance had the title "hou". Estates and title were passed on by inheritance. From 195 to 188 BC the country was ruled by one of Liu Bang's sons --- Hui-di. After him, power passed into the hands of Liu Bang's widow --- empresses Lü, who died in 180 from a mysterious illness. Then another one of Liu Bang's sons, Wendi, ascended the throne. He reigned for 23 years and revived Confucian traditions. After him, Liu Bang's grandson ruled. Jing-di (156-141 BC), who continued to pursue a policy of restoring the country's prosperity, reduced taxes and duties in order to rapidly develop the economy.

He pacified the Huns (Xiongnu), extinguished the rebellions of the appanage princes. The state power of the Han Dynasty increased. In 141 BC. Jing-di was replaced by Emperor Wu-di. Wu Di placed a talented commander at the head of the Chinese army, who was ordered to discover the Huns, force them to fight and then destroy them. Intoxicated by their continuous successes, the Huns became less cautious. A few months later, the Chinese army again won a major victory, and these successes had a great impact on the morale of the army, strengthening its morale and self-confidence. Then Wu-di decided to transfer the war to enemy territory. He formed a large army of horse archers and placed an experienced cavalry commander at its head. The appearance of a large army of Chinese cavalry stunned the Huns. They were driven out of Inner Mongolia. Wu-di, having stopped the war, began to develop agriculture. Then Emperor Zhao continued to develop the country's economy.

An attempt was made to weaken the rich " strong houses" Power in the country was seized by Wang Mang, the father-in-law of Emperor Ping Di and regent for his young son. This happened in 8. Wang Mang declared himself the founder of the new Xin Dynasty. He actively carried out reforms, was cruel and made many enemies. In addition, uprisings broke out in the country. Under the blows of the Red Brows uprising in 232, the capital Changan fell, and Wang Mang was killed. However, the Han generals defeated the rebels and nominated a new emperor, Liu Xiu, from among them.

The Eastern Han Dynasty (second Han Dynasty --- 25-220) is one of the most powerful empires in Chinese history. The people of the Western Han Dynasty lived in prosperity. Note that from the moment when Wu Di from the Western Han accepted the proposal of the outstanding thinker Dong Zhongshu “Respect only Confucianism, destroying other schools,” it was Confucianism that became a strategy for governing the state.

Thanks to the stability of politics and the economy, trade, culture, crafts and natural sciences developed rapidly. As the level of science and technology improved, the efficiency of production in the handicraft industry increased, which contributed to the prosperity of trade. The Eastern Han Dynasty established cultural and trade exchanges with Western Asian countries through the Silk Road.

The Eastern Han Dynasty reigned from 25 to 220.

Second Han Dynasty (Eastern Han: 25-220). In 23, the capital of the Xin Dynasty --- Changan - fell. In 25, Liu Xiu, a representative of the House of Han, defeated Wang Man (father-in-law of Emperor Ping-di and regent under the young Ying-di, who seized power in the 2nd century and proclaimed himself the founders of the new Xin dynasty) and won power. The capital of the Eastern Han Dynasty was the city of Luoyang. By order of Emperor Guang Wu-di, a reform of the old policy was carried out and the system of government was streamlined. Guang Wu-di appointed six shangshu (ministers, senior dignitaries) who managed state affairs. He also checked all land holdings and distributed all fields among farmers, giving them the opportunity to feed themselves in order to stabilize the lives of the people. In the middle of the 2nd century. thanks to the efforts of the emperors Guang Wu Di (25-27), Ming Di (58-75) and Zhang Di, the Eastern Han dynasty flourished; production and culture developed; Particular successes were achieved in foreign policy.

During the first period of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the country became stable through the strengthening of central power and unification. In this regard, its economy, culture, science and technology have reached a new level. In 105, Cai Lun invented paper, and paper production began. Since then, China has abandoned the use of bamboo writing tablets. Papermaking technology became one of the four great inventions and discoveries of ancient China and spread throughout the world. In the field of natural sciences, China achieved great success during the Eastern Han Dynasty. For example, Zhang Heng produced scientific instruments, invented the armillary sphere and tellurium --- device to visually demonstrate the movement of the Earth around the Sun. In addition, the world-famous doctor Hua Tuo appeared. He is the first surgeon to operate on patients under anesthesia.

Political schism in the post-Han period: the Jin Dynasty and the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties

In 220, Cao Cao's son Cao Pei deposed the last Han emperor and proclaimed himself the head of the new Wei dynasty, which lasted until 280. Then a certain Sima Yan took the throne and named his dynastyJin. The kingdoms of Wei and Jin existed from 220 to 589.

However, that period was not homogeneous. At the end of the 2nd century, China experienced the political division of the post-Han period. Since 220, several states simultaneously coexisted on Chinese territory, with the exception of short periods of time, and a period of chaos and anarchy began in the country. The period of fragmentation and strife began with the so-called era of the “Three Kingdoms”. At that time, the kingdom of Wei, located on the northern plain, retained significant influence, but the kingdom of Shu competed with it in the basin of the upper reaches of the river. Yangtze in the west and southwest of China and the kingdom of Wu. The Western Jin Dynasty put an end to the era of the “Three Kingdoms”. But the period of unification of the country under the Western Jin dynasty was short (from 265 to 316), and then a split occurred again. Members of the imperial house in the region south of the Yangtze River created the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 to 420). And in the north many remained ruling houses, and then there was a period of rebellion by the eight Vanir. The internecine struggle lasted for almost 15 years, and China found itself unprotected in the North before the invasion of nomads.

During this period, the economy in the South developed rapidly. In the river valley Yangtze unstable authorities of different dynasties quickly replaced each other. The influx of Chinese migrants from the North had a significant impact on the development of the region. Southern China began to outstrip Northern China in the economic, political and cultural fields. Most of the southern dynasties were intellectually and culturally heavily influenced by Buddhism. In the field of culture and art, the poetry of the poet Tao Yuanming, the calligraphy of Wang Xizhi, the painting of Gu Kaizhi have become famous; The stone caves of Dunhuang became famous - treasuries of Buddhist art.

In the field of science and technology, mathematician Zu Chongzhi was the first in the world to calculate pi to the seventh decimal place, assigning it a value between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927. At the beginning of the 6th century. scientist Jia Sise compiled the “Encyclopedia for the Common People” (“Qiming Yao Shu”), which was a synthesis of the knowledge and achievements of all previous eras and the traditional level of Chinese agronomic science.

The era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 --- 589) is the "Nan Bei Chao" period. It was a troubled time of confrontation between North and South. Northern dynasties included: Northern Wei Dynasty; then the Northern Wei Dynasty split into Eastern Wei and Western Wei, then the Northern Qi Dynasty replaced the Eastern Wei Dynasty, and the Northern Zhou Dynasty replaced the Western Wei Dynasty; then Northern Qi was replaced by the Northern Zhou dynasty. The southern dynasties are the Su, Qi, Liang and Chen dynasties.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties in southern China, advanced manufacturing technologies contributed to the development of the economy. The most developed economic region was around the city of Yangzhou.

In the field of culture and ideology, the development of mysticism and magic occupied the most important place. Hard times created a wide space for freedom of ideas and mysticism.

During this period they developed external Relations China, close contacts were established with Japan, North Korea, Central Asia and the regions of East and South Asia.

After the fall of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Nan Bei Chao era became a period of division of China into South and North, but the split of the Southern and Northern Dynasties played an important role in promoting the process of national unification. Therefore, the era of the Southern and Northern dynasties is considered one of important stages development of the Chinese nation.

Sui Dynasty and Tang Dynasty

The Sui Dynasty (581--618) considers Yang Jian, the famous Wen Di, as its founder.He conquered the northern lands that remained under the rule of the barbarians, and then annexed the south of the country to the empire. This dynasty created such management system, which turned out to be capable of ensuring the integrity of the empire. A plan for the construction of the Grand Canal was developed and implemented, which connected the river. Yellow River and other river systems of the North with the Huaihe, Yangtze and southern provinces. The system of state examinations for the purpose of selecting officials for positions during the Sui period reached perfection. However, costly and unsuccessful campaigns of conquest led the country to exhaustion. Waste has placed an additional burden on the economy. The rulers of the Sui dynasty were unable to clearly define their positions regarding Confucianism, Buddhism and other schools of thought.

However, with the rise to power in 618 AD. The Tang Dynasty began one of the most glorious periods in Chinese history. The active and humane nature of the reign of the founders of the dynasty, Gao-tzu and his son Taizong, made it possible to restore the empire. The so-called Western Regions were annexed to China's dominions; Persia, Arabia and other West Asian states sent their embassies to the imperial court. In addition, the borders in the North-East of the country were expanded; Korea was annexed to the imperial possessions. In the south, Chinese rule over Annam was restored. Maintained relations with other countries South-East Asia. Thus, the territory of the country in size became almost equal to the territory of China during the heyday of the Han Dynasty.

The economic and administrative innovations of the Sui dynasty were adopted and consolidated in the Tang era. A new order of long-term land ownership was introduced, according to which the formation of large land holdings was limited, and peasants were able to maintain a stable standard of living. The most significant achievement was the legal system created during the Tang era, which ultimately broke with the nihilism of the Qin period. A mandatory set of social traditions and rules of conduct imbued with the spirit of Confucianism was formulated. The Tang era witnessed the flowering of Chinese art and literature. Most Tang emperors actively patronized poetry, theatrical art and music, and many themselves showed creative abilities. Famous poets of the Tang Dynasty --- Chen Zian, Li Bo, Dufu, Bo Juyi, Li Shangyin and Du Mu. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan took the initiative to create works in ancient Chinese literary language, which greatly influenced other dynasties. The calligraphy of Yan Zhenqing, the painting of Yan Liben, Wu Daozi and Wang Wei, as well as cave temple art gained fame. Printing and gunpowder were invented.

The court's position weakened, and the power of local military leaders continued to grow. The result of this process was uprisings and rebellions that led to the collapse of the Tang Dynasty. One of them, which covered a vast territory and gained the greatest fame, was the uprising led by Wang Hsien-chih and Huang Chao, who in the second half of the 2nd century. proclaimed himself emperor and plundered the trading city of Canton, destroying more than 100 thousand Arabs who settled there. One of the local military leaders killed the Tang emperor (this event is usually attributed to 906), forced the heir to abdicate the throne and founded a new dynasty - Liang. The Liang, like several subsequent dynasties, ruled the country for a short time, during the so-called “Five Dynasties” period, when the number of military groups vying for the throne reached 20.

Song Dynasty

In 960, the founder of the Song dynasty, the military leader Zhao Kuanyin, the future emperor, Taizu again restored the unity of the empire.He had to not only take measures to eliminate the unrest, but also tackle the problems that remained unresolved during the Tang Dynasty. The borders of the state in the Song era narrowed significantly. Two foreign states that had formed by that time occupied part of Chinese territory, and the Chinese did not have the strength to resist the invaders. The first of these empires was the state of Liao. The Liao Empire included Manchuria, Inner Mongolia and the northern part of the modern Chinese provinces of Hebei and Shanxi, including the cities of Beijing and Datong. Another state was the Western Xia (Xi-Xia Empire), formed by the Tanguts, who settled the lands along the northwestern border. Chinese military expeditions against these two empires were unsuccessful, and as a result China was forced to sign agreements with them that included a number of humiliating clauses, including the payment of annual tribute.

The initiator of economic reforms, Wang Anshi (1021-1086), was an exceptionally energetic person. The measures he proposed included the centralization of all trade and transport, government loans to peasants, the introduction of a new taxation system, and the replacement of the mercenary army with a people's militia. He carried out these reforms despite the opposition of the conservative part of the Confucian officials, who ultimately prevailed. Beginning of the 12th century marked by another political crisis. During this period, the northern Khitan state of Liao was conquered by the Jin Empire, founded by the northeastern tribes - the Jurchens. The conquerors poured into the territory of the North China Plain and in 1127. occupied the capital of the Song Empire, the city of Kaifeng, and captured Emperor Qingzong and his father Heizong. The Song imperial court moved to the new capital (present-day Hangzhou) south of the Yangtze River. It is likely that only because of distrust of their own military leaders, the Suns were unable to return the lost lands. Among the generals of the Song army at that time there were several commanders --- most notably General Yue Fei --- who were distinguished by their energy and strategic talents. However, the imperial court preferred to sign a peace agreement with the Jins and recalled its troops from the battlefields. Yue Fei was falsely accused of treason and imprisoned and then poisoned. The imperial court of the Southern Song dynasty also refused to listen to the advice of representatives of the philosophical and political movement of pragmatists, whose ideas were based on the desire to conquer the North.

During this period, the Song Dynasty achieved great success in science and technology. The development and use of the compass, printing and gunpowder continued. Typographic printing, invented by Bi Sheng, was 400 years ahead of Europe. Su Song created the world's first astronomical clock. The book “Mengxi Bitan” (“Notes on Dreams”), written by Shen Kuo, is important in the history of natural philosophy in China. In terms of culture, Neo-Confucianism became popular. Zhu Xi and Lu Jiuyuan were among the founders and guardians of Neo-Confucianism. Taoism, Buddhism and foreign religions also developed in China. During the Northern Song period, Oyang Xiu wrote the New Book of the Tang Dynasty and made great contributions to the historiography of China. “Zi Zhi Tong Jian” (“General Review of Events Helping Management”), whose editor-in-chief is Sima Guang, became an example of a chronicle. Many of the Song emperors collected valuable collections of works of art. Some of them, including Emperor Heizong, were themselves talented artists. The literary creations of the Song era are comparable to the masterpieces of the Tang era. This was the period of “classical songs,” which were composed in the form of verses with lines of varying lengths, with extremely complex rhythmic patterns and rhymes, in contrast to the strictly metered verses of the Tang period.

Mongol Yuan Dynasty

In 1206, the Mongol Temujin, the son of Yesugei-Batur, the leader of a powerful family, created his own state, and in 1271, becoming the all-Mongol ruler under the name of Genghis Khan, Kublai defeated the Chinese troops led by Wen Tianxiang and annexed China to the possessions of the Mongol Empire.He became the founder of the Mongol dynasty on Chinese soil.

The Song dynasty ended its reign with the arrival of the Mongols, whose leader Temujin had previously completed the unification of Mongolia. He called himself Genghis Khan. By that time he had carried out successful campaigns of conquest in Western Asia. On the mainland, the Mongols managed to return all the territories lost to China during the Song era, and even annex lands that had never belonged to the Chinese before. The Mongols conquered the Chinese state of Nanzhao on the territory of the modern province. Yunnan. The conquest of Tibet was accomplished without much military effort, and Tibetan monks began to play a significant role in the cultural and political life of the capital.

During this period, the first Christian missions began to arrive in the East, and the Mongols not only tolerated their presence, but even supported them.

During the Tang, Sui and Yuan dynasties, China became the most developed country in the world. China's economy and culture have attracted neighboring countries. Diplomatic relations with other countries were revived. The Yuan Dynasty was closely associated with Japan and the countries of East and South Asia. Expanded shipping between China and India. During the reign of the Yuan dynasty, astronomy, medicine and arithmetic became widespread in China, coming from Arab countries. Islam was popular in China. Chinese porcelain became famous in East Africa and also in Morocco. In 1275, the son of the Italian merchant Marco Polo made a long journey from the Italian city of Venice to China. Polo got to China by land, through high mountains and vast deserts, but returned to his homeland by sea, traveling along the southern coast of Asia. Marco Polo lived in China for seventeen years and wrote the book “Journey”. For many centuries this book served as one of the important documents, from which Westerners learned about China and Asia.

Yuan drama and folklore achieved great success. Famous playwrights and artists and cultural figures of that time are: Guan Hanqing, Wang Shifu, Bei Pu, Ma Zhiyuan, etc. The most famous examples of works of art: “The Resentment of Dou E”, “Western Wing”, etc.

For strategic reasons, the Mongols founded their capital on the site of present-day Beijing. They then turned to the old Chinese idea of ​​connecting the capital with more economically prosperous regions through the Grand Canal. The Mongol authorities brutally exploited the Han people, which caused strong protest from the indigenous population. In 1333, a peasant uprising broke out in the country. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang, who, being the son of a peasant and then a wandering monk, led a rebel army, founded the Ming Dynasty, occupying Beijing.

Ming Dynasty

In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang created a dynastyMin. He was not a representative of the “Shenshi” and considered the interests of this class, as well as the dominance of the bureaucracy in governing the country, dangerous for the form of state apparatus that he was going to implement. The tendency towards the legalized centralization of government, noticeably manifested already in the Song period, received priority development in the Ming era. After the death of Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor's son took the throne, then his uncle Zhu Di became emperor. In 1421 he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing.

Even the position of chancellor --- the chief political adviser to the emperor in all Chinese dynasties --- was not retained under the Ming. Never before have the subjects of a country been treated with such cruelty. Caning high-ranking officials in the presence of the entire court became a common practice. There are known cases when an effigy of an executed official was hung in the office of his successor. A despotic regime could only survive during the reign of strong and energetic emperors. However, soon the rulers began to be attracted by the luxury of palace life, and power fell into the hands of eunuchs. From time to time, fierce battles broke out between the officials and the eunuchs, in which the Confucians were usually defeated, as had already happened during the reign of the emperors of the Han dynasty.

During the Ming Dynasty, the famous politician Zhang Juzheng appeared. He carried out a reform in order to mitigate contradictions in society and save the Minsk authorities. He streamlined management methods and developed agriculture to relieve the burdens on the peasants.

During this period, agriculture developed rapidly. The textile industry and porcelain production were developed. The iron and paper industries and shipbuilding industries also developed rapidly. External exchange in the fields of economics and culture has expanded. On July 11, 1405, naval commander Zheng He went to sea at the head of a squadron of 208 ships, with 28 thousand sailors on board. During his nearly thirty-year maritime career, Zheng He visited the South Pacific, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf and off the coast of East Africa. In China, it is believed that it was Zheng He who discovered America, 70 years ahead of Columbus, who reached the shores of the New World in 1492.

During the Ming Dynasty, commercial farming developed rapidly. The first shoots of capitalism appeared. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang reduced taxes. It also attracted people to cultivate new types of crops, such as tobacco, tomatoes, corn and peanuts, introduced from other countries to China. In the textile industry, manufactories appeared in which there were more than 10 weaving machines, and hired workers. All this indicates the sprouts of capitalism in China. During the Ming Dynasty, production of a variety of goods increased. Commercial centers were established in places that had convenient communications. Prosperous cities emerged --- Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Guangzhou.

During this period, it was common to write examination essays --- eight-part written works, for the sake of obtaining the position of a government official, famous classic novels appeared, such as The Pools, The Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Plum Blossoms in a Golden Vase. In addition, “The Travels of Xu Xiake” was created - literature on geography, and in the field of medicine the book “Chinese Pharmacopoeia” appeared medicinal plants"; The Agricultural Encyclopedia, the treatise The Work of Natural Forces, as well as the famous Yongle Encyclopedia were published.

IN late period During the Ming Dynasty, the concentration of land increased greatly. Soon a new and powerful enemy arose on the northeastern borders of China. The leader of the descendants of the Jurchens, Nurhaci, declared himself khan in 1616 and founded the Jin (“Golden”) dynasty.

Thus the Manchu Empire was created, a typical frontier empire, but Nurhaci made much greater use of Chinese experience in the administrative and military fields to consolidate his own dominance. The organization of its armed forces showed features inherent in the troops of the steppe peoples, and methods of warfare were combined with Chinese methods of strict command and control.

Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1911.From the founder of the dynasty, Emperor Nurhaci, to the last Emperor Pu Yi, a total of 12 emperors reigned over the years. Counting from the time the Manchu Qing army conquered the Shanghai outpost to the 1911 revolution, the Qing dynasty ruled for 268 years.

During its heyday, the area of ​​the Qing Empire exceeded 1 thousand 200 square meters. km. In 1616, Nurhaci founded the Later Jin state, and in 1632, Emperor Huang Taiji renamed his state Qing. In 1644, Li Zicheng led a peasant revolt to overthrow the Ming Dynasty, and the last Ming emperor, Chong Zhen, committed suicide. The Qing army, taking advantage of the current situation, invaded the aisles of China and suppressed the peasant war. Beijing became the capital of the new Qing dynasty. After this, the Qing suppressed local peasant uprisings in various parts of the country, and they also dealt with anyone who still supported the Ming. Thus, the Qing fought for the unification of China.

During the early Qing period, in order to mitigate class contradictions, measures were taken to encourage the development of virgin lands and reduce taxes. This had a certain impetus on the economic development of inland and border areas. In the middle of the 18th century. China experienced an economic boom, this economic flourishing in scientific literature acquired the name of the period “Kang-Yun-Qian” (Kang, Yun and Qian are the first hieroglyphs in the names of the three Qing emperors who ruled at that time, i.e. Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong). The Qing administration at that time did its best to strengthen the regime of centralized power. At the end of the 18th century, the population of the Qing Dynasty was about 300 million people.

In 1661, the famous Qing commander Zheng Chenggong, at the head of a naval arcade, crossed the Taiwan Strait and won a complete victory over the Dutch, who had colonized Taiwan for 38 years. At the beginning of 1662, the Dutch colonialists surrendered, and Taiwan returned to the fold of the Motherland.

At the end of the 16th century, the Russian Empire expanded the borders of its possessions to the East. When the Qing army arrived in the area of ​​the eastern border outpost, Tsarist Russia, taking advantage of the opportunity, occupied the cities of Kyakhta and Nerchinsk. The Qing urgently demanded that Russia withdraw its troops from Chinese territories. In 1685 and 1686 Emperor Kangxi issued two decrees on the siege of Russian troops in the Kyakhta area. The Russian side was forced to agree to negotiations regarding the eastern section of the border between China and Russia. In 1689, representatives of both sides held negotiations in Nerchinsk, and concluded the first official agreement on the border - the “Treaty of Nerchinsk”.

During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, a separatist uprising in Kashgaria was suppressed. Qianlong took a number of measures that related to the development of the economy, culture and infrastructure in the border areas.

During the Qing Dynasty, especially in the period before Emperor Daoguang, great advances were made in cultural life. At that time, a number of remarkable thinkers appeared, including Wang Fuzhi, Huang Zongxi and Dai Zhaen, a whole galaxy of famous writers and artists such as Cao Xueqin, Wu Jingqi, Kong Shanren and Shi Tao and others. Along with this, successes were achieved in the development historical science. Many famous historians of that time worked on creating encyclopedic historiographical works. Among them are “Si Ku Quan Shu” (Collected Books of the Celestial Empire in Four Sections) and “Collected Works from Antiquity to the Present.” The scientific and technical field has also undergone brilliant development, with achievements in architecture especially worth noting.

The Qing government developed an agrarian-type economy; culture and ideology were distinguished by the imposition of feudal norms of morality and ritual. The Qings fought against all kinds of dissent from the intellectual elite of society of that time, and in the sphere of foreign relations the Qings sought to blindly isolate themselves from the outside world.

During the late Qing period, social contradictions continually worsened; this period was characterized by the rise of anti-Qing uprisings. The period of prosperity of the empire ended with the beginning of the uprising of the White Lotus Sect.

After the Opium War of 1840, as a result of the imperialist invasion of China, the Qing government concluded a number of unequal treaties with the aggressors. According to these treaties, the Qing ceded vast territories, paid indemnities, and opened trading ports to foreigners. China gradually became a semi-feudal, semi-colonial country. Due to political decay, ideological myopia, soft-hearted and downtrodden politics, the Qing dynasty entered a period of decline. A number of popular uprisings broke out in the country, including the Taiping and Nianjun (torchbearers) uprisings. In order to maintain independence, the Qing authorities undertook reforms, which, however, ended in failure. At that time, many patriots and heroes appeared who fought to the last drop of blood to get the country out of the systemic crisis. In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution occurred, which ended Qing rule. China, having freed itself from a two-thousand-year feudal yoke, has entered a new stage of its development.

Unification of China. Qin Empire

In the 4th century. BC e. in several large principalities reforms of the legalist type were carried out, finally destroying the fragments of the old social order, increasing social mobility and encouraging private initiative, property and trade. At the same time, the administrative apparatus was expanded and state exploitation of community members intensified.

Lao Tzu. Early medieval sculpture

Detailed information has been preserved about the reforms undertaken by the legal dignitary Shan Yan in the mountainous kingdom of Qin in western China. The broadest mutual responsibility was introduced (families were united into “heels?” and “tens”, subjected to collective punishment for the offense of any of their members), the free purchase and sale of land was allowed, the forced division of the land allotment of an undivided family into individual ones; the privileges of persons of noble origin who did not have individual merits to the ruler were eliminated; weights and measures were unified; a uniform administrative division was introduced, as well as new system ranks awarded for military merit or for a monetary contribution to the treasury.

Shang Yang's reforms caused rapid growth in the Qin economy, income, and centralization of the ruler's power, which soon made Qin the strongest of the Chinese domains. It is characteristic that the two most powerful Qin legal dignitaries (Shang Yang himself and the later Li Si) themselves fell victim to the regime they created. They were brutally executed on unsubstantiated charges, but this did not diminish the zeal of their followers.

Economic growth and the development of iron metallurgy allowed the Chinese rulers to maintain more numerous and well-armed armies and conduct intense military operations. The assignment of ranks for military services to the ruler contributed to the influx of brave and ambitious people. All this caused wars between the principalities, which by the beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. only seven remained, larger-scale, dynamic and bloody, which, in turn, increased the opportunities for one possession to achieve complete victory over another. The principalities of Chu and Qin gained the upper hand in these wars; the last in 256 BC. e. destroyed the Zhou dynasty itself, which indicated dramatic changes in ideology. With a bath Ying Zheng(246–210 BC) The Qin annexed all other Chinese kingdoms in less than ten years. In 221 BC. e. China was unified under one government for the first time in several hundred years.

After this unprecedented victory, Ying Zheng took the new title "Qin Shi Huang" ("First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty") and carried out sweeping reforms in the country, turning it into bureaucratic centralized empire. It was divided by 36 administrative districts, and special attention was paid to ensuring that the boundaries between them did not coincide with the old boundaries between kingdoms or natural ethnographic and geographical boundaries - this is how the emperor tried to overcome the traditions of local separatism. An extensive state apparatus was formed, and in each district, civil power was concentrated in the hands of one official, and military power in the hands of another, and both reported directly to the emperor.

The districts were divided into counties. County chiefs were appointed by the civil governor of the district, and even smaller administrative units were governed by elected community elders, thus traditional community self-government became the lower level of the state apparatus. Supervision of officials and the country as a whole was carried out by a special service of inspectors - trusted representatives of the emperor. The state subjected all aspects of people's lives to strict administrative control; all weapons were taken away from the population and poured into bells.

Throughout the country, writing, monetary circulation (in particular, all non-Qin coins were removed from it), units of measure and weight were unified, and uniform legislation was introduced, consistent with the usual Legist Qin spirit and characterized by the exorbitant cruelty of punishments. For any crime, the entire family of the offender was punished, usually by turning into state slaves. The death penalty was applied for all kinds of offenses, including minor administrative omissions. En masse people were sent to hard labor. If there were grounds to believe that the culprit of a serious political crime lived in a certain village, but it was impossible to accurately identify him, they could exterminate all the inhabitants of this and nearby villages, just so as not to miss the criminal.

All cults that could be or were associated with local separatism were destroyed and persecuted. It was ordered to destroy all the works of the pre-Qin written tradition of China, so that people would have nowhere to learn about other times and orders (however, many Chinese, risking their lives, hid and preserved forbidden works for future generations). Hundreds of Confucian scholars were executed for their adherence to antiquity. Qin Shi Huang himself considered his reforms to be the eschatological salvation of China. He stated in his inscriptions:

“Everything happens as it should, and nothing happens except according to the plan. The emperor's insight reaches all four corners of the world and penetrates everywhere. Now neither the highest nor the lowest, neither the noble nor the common man, no one disturbs the order. In large and small matters, people strain their strength; no one dares to be lazy or careless. Whether far or close, even in remote and secluded places, everyone works hard, with rigor and exactingness towards each other. People humbly and joyfully accept the instructions and fully understand the laws and rules. The improvements will spread and there will be no end to them!”

(Translated by R.V. Vyatkina)

In accordance with the principles of the Legalists, Qin Shi Huang considered the creation of the empire only the beginning of new grandiose deeds designed to further strengthen the power of the ruler and keep the people busy with hard work. In 215–214 BC e. huge armies were sent to the northern Xiongnu nomads and the Viet countries - Aulak and Nam Viet between the Yangtze basin and the South China Sea, which Chinese troops had never penetrated. Vast conquests were made at the cost of innumerable casualties.

The emperor launched unprecedented construction: the Great Wall of China, about 4 thousand km long, and a giant underground imperial tomb were erected. The tomb was a whole world with rivers of mercury and stars of precious stones. It housed 6 thousand terracotta warriors-guards in life size, so that they guard the afterlife of the ruler. The craftsmen who built the tomb were buried alive in it so that no one could divulge the secrets of the emperor's burial.

Clay Army of Qin Shi Huang

To build the Great Wall, people were resettled and convicts were sent to the northern regions. Its construction remained in the memory of the people as a terrible disaster; many legends arose, according to which, during construction, living people were walled up in the wall. Militarily, the wall turned out to be almost useless: subsequently, the nomads overcame it without much difficulty. The empire's large-scale achievements were achieved through the brutal exploitation of peasants, whose taxes under Qin Shi Huang increased sharply and reached 2/3 of the harvest.

The Qin Dynasty was widely hated by the people, and after the death of Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC. e. Uprisings immediately began throughout the country. In 207 BC. e. rebel detachments, led by both peasant leaders and representatives of the old aristocratic families, took the Qin capital, overthrew the son of Qin Shi Huang and put an end to the rule of the dynasty. However, no one wanted to return to the former fragmentation.

In 202 BC. e. in the struggle that unfolded between the rebel leaders for control over the entire country, the former minor official, a native of the peasants Liu Bang, won, patronizing the communities and suppressing the attempts of his troops to rob the population subordinate to him; he proclaimed himself emperor (throne name Gaozu, 202–195 BC BC) and gave the dynasty he founded the name Han. The period of reign of the direct line of his descendants is called the era Elder Han(202 BC – 9 BC).

6. 3. Golden Empire (Qin) of the Manzhurs and the Golden Horde Let us emphasize that the Manzhurs called the empire they created in China – Golden (Qin in Chinese). Moreover, they named it that way in memory of their former state, volume 4, p. 633. So where did this mysterious Manzhurian come from,