Ship hydro-meteorological instruments. Meteorological instruments. Meteorological instruments - instruments and installations for measuring and recording the values of meteorological elements. For comparison. Instruments used at weather stations

The weather forecast is made both on the basis of readings from ship instruments and information transmitted by coastal meteorological services.

The main element in weather forecasting is atmospheric pressure. Normal atmospheric pressure is the mass of a mercury column with a height of 760 mm over an area of 1 cm2. To measure pressure under ship conditions, an aneroid barometer and a barograph are used (Fig. 1).

A device that continuously records atmospheric pressure on a special paper barogram tape. This allows us to judge changes in atmospheric pressure over time and make appropriate predictions.

Rice. 1 Instruments for measuring atmospheric pressure: aneroid barometer and barograph

To measure the speed and direction of the true wind, an anemometer, a stopwatch and a CMO circle are used (Fig. 2).

Rice. 2 Instruments for determining wind speed and direction: 1 - SMO circle, anemometer and stopwatch 2 - automatic weather station

Used to measure the average wind speed over a certain period of time. The anemometer counter has three dials: a large one, divided into one hundred parts, giving units and tens of divisions, and two small ones - for counting hundreds and thousands of divisions. Before determining the wind speed, it is necessary to record the scale reading. Then stand on the upper bridge on the windward side in a place where the wind flow is not distorted by ship structures. Holding the anemometer in your outstretched hand, turn it on at the same time as the stopwatch. After 100 seconds, turn off the anemometer and record a new reading. Find the difference in readings and divide by 100. The result obtained is the wind speed, measured in meters per second (m/s).

If the ship is underway, then the apparent (observed) direction and speed of the wind are measured, i.e., the resultant speeds of the true wind and the ship. When determining the apparent direction of the wind, it should be remembered that the wind always “blows into the compass.”

To determine the true direction and speed of the wind on a moving ship, the SMO (Sevastopol Marine Observatory) circle is used. The calculation procedure is given on the back of the circle.

Modern ships are equipped with automatic weather stations. Measuring equipment is mounted on the upper bridge; indicators are displayed on the bridge, showing the direction and speed of the true wind at a given moment.

To measure humidity on ships, an aspiration psychrometer is used (Fig. 3), consisting of two thermometers inserted into a nickel-plated metal frame, on top of which an aspirator (fan) is screwed. When the aspirator is running, air is sucked in from below through double tubes that protect the thermometer reservoirs. Flowing around the tanks of thermometers, the air imparts its temperature to them. The right tank is wrapped in cambric, which is moistened with a pipette 4 minutes before the fan starts. Measurements are taken on the bridge wing on the windward side. Readings are taken first from a dry thermometer, then from a wet one.

Air humidity is characterized by the content of water vapor in the air. The amount of water vapor in grams per cubic meter of humid air is called absolute humidity.

Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the amount of steam required to saturate the air at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage. When the temperature drops, the relative humidity increases, and when the temperature rises, it decreases.

When air containing water vapor is cooled to a certain temperature, it will be so saturated with water vapor that further cooling will cause condensation, i.e. the formation of moisture, or sublimation - the direct formation of ice crystals from water vapor. The temperature at which the water vapor contained in the air reaches saturation is called the dew point.

A thermometer is used to measure the ambient air temperature (Fig. 4).

Rice. 3 Aspiration psychrometer

Rice. 4 Device for measuring air temperature

Reading Fax Cards

Information about weather and sea conditions necessary to decide on the choice of course or work at sea can be obtained in the form of facsimile transmissions of various maps. This type of hydro-meteorological information is the most informative. It is characterized by great variety, efficiency and visibility.

Currently, regional hydrometeorological centers compile and broadcast a large number of different maps. Below is a list of charts most commonly used for navigation purposes:

surface weather analysis. The map is compiled on the basis of surface meteorological observations at key dates;
surface weather forecast. Shows the expected weather in the specified area in 12, 24, 36 and 48 hours;
short-lead surface forecast. The expected position of the pressure system (cyclones, anticyclones, fronts) in the surface layer for the next 3-5 days is given;
wave field analysis. This map gives a description of the wave field in the region - the direction of wave propagation, their height and period;
wave field forecast. Shows the forecasted wave field for 24 and 48 hours - the direction of the waves and the height of the prevailing waves;
ice conditions map. The ice situation in the given area (concentration, ice edge, polynyas and other characteristics) and the position of icebergs are shown.

Surface analysis maps contain data on actual weather in the lower layers of the atmosphere. The pressure field on these maps is represented by isobars at sea level. The main surface maps are for 00:00, 06:00, 12:00 and 5:00 hours Greenwich Mean Time.

Forecast maps are maps of the expected weather conditions (12, 24, 36, 48, 72 hours). On surface forecast maps, the expected positions of the centers of cyclones and anticyclones, frontal sections, and pressure fields are indicated.

When reading facsimile hydrometeorological maps, the navigator receives the initial information from the map header. The map header contains the following information:

card type;
the geographic area covered by the map;
hydrometeorological station call signs;
date and time of publication;
additional information.

The type and region of the map are characterized by the first four symbols, with the first two characterizing the type, and the next two characterizing the map region. For example:

ASAS - surface analysis (AS - analysis surface) for the Asian part (AS - Asia);
FWPN - wave forecast (FW - forecast wave) for the northern part of the Pacific Ocean (PN - Pacific North).

Common abbreviations are listed below:

Hydrometeorological situation analysis maps.
- AS - surface analysis (Surface Analysis);
- AU - Upper Analysis for various heights (pressures);
- AW - Wave/Wind Analysis;
Prognostic cards (for 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours).
- FS - surface forecast (Surface Forecast)
- FU - altitude forecast (Upper Forecast) for various heights (pressures).
- FW - wind/wave forecast (Wave/Wind Forecast).
Special cards.
- ST—ice forecast (Sea Ice Condition);
- WT - tropical cyclone forecast (Tropical Cyclone Forecast);
- CO - Sea Surface Water Temperature map;
- SO - map of surface currents (Sea Surface Current).
The following abbreviations are commonly used to indicate the area covered by the map:
- AS - Asia;
- AE - Southeast Asia
- PN—Pacific North;
- JP - Japan;
- WX - Equator zone, etc.

Four alphabetic characters may be accompanied by 1-2 numeric characters specifying the type of map, for example FSAS24 - surface analysis for 24 hours or AUAS70 - above-ground analysis for 700 hPa pressure.

The type and area of the map are followed by the call sign of the radio station broadcasting the map (for example, JMH - Japan Meteorological and Hydrographic Agency). The second line of the title indicates the date and time the map was compiled. Date and time are in Greenwich Mean Time or UTC. To denote the given time, the abbreviations Z (ZULU) and UTC (Universal Coordinated Time) are used, respectively, for example, 240600Z JUN 2007 - 06/24/07, 06.00 GMT.

The third and fourth lines of the header decipher the card type and provide additional information (Fig. 5).

Pressure relief on facsimile maps is represented by isobars - lines of constant pressure. On Japanese weather maps, isobars are drawn through 4 hectopascals for pressures that are multiples of 4 (for example, 988, 992, 996 hPa). Every fifth isobar, i.e., a multiple of 20 hPa, is drawn by a thick line (980, 1000, 1020 hPa). Such isobars are usually (but not always) labeled with pressure. If necessary, intermediate isobars are also drawn through 2 hecto-pascals. Such isobars are drawn with a dotted line.

Pressure formations on weather maps of Japan are represented by cyclones and anticyclones. Cyclones are designated by the letter L (Low), anticyclones by the letter H (High). The center of pressure formation is indicated by an “x”. The pressure in the center is indicated next to it. An arrow near the pressure formation indicates the direction and speed of its movement.

Rice. 5 Surface weather analysis map for the Asian region

There are the following ways to indicate the speed of movement of pressure formations:

ALMOST STNR - almost stationary (almost stationary) - pressure formation speed less than 5 knots;
SLW - slowly (slowly) - pressure formation speed from 5 to 10 knots;
10 kT — pressure formation rate in knots with an accuracy of 5 knots; Text comments are given for the deepest cyclones, which give the characteristics of the cyclone, the pressure in the center, the coordinates of the center, the direction and speed of movement, the maximum wind speed, as well as the zone of winds with speeds exceeding 30 and 50 knots.

An example of a comment on a cyclone:

DEVELOPING LOW 992 hPa 56.2N 142.6E NNE 06 KT MAX WINDS 55 KT NEAR CENTER OVER 50 KT WITHIN 360 NM OVER 30 KT WITHIN 800 NM SE-SEMICIRCULAR 550 NM ELSEWHERE.

DEVELOPING LOW - a developing cyclone. There may also be DE-VELOPED LOW - a developed cyclone;
- pressure in the center of the cyclone - 992 hPa;
- coordinates of the cyclone center: latitude - 56.2° N, longitude - 142.6° E;
- the cyclone is moving at NNE at 6 knots;
- the maximum wind speed near the center of the cyclone is 55 knots.

A tropical cyclone goes through 4 main stages in its development:

TD — tropical depression (Tropical Depression) — an area of low pressure (cyclone) with a wind speed of up to 17 m/s (33 knots, 7 points on the Beaufort scale) with a pronounced center;
TS - tropical storm (Tropical Storm) - a tropical cyclone with a wind speed of 17-23 m/s (34-47 knots, 8-9 points on the Beaufort scale);
STS - severe (severe) tropical storm (Severe Tropical Storm) - a tropical cyclone with a wind speed of 24-32 m/s (48-63 knots, 10-11 on the Beaufort scale);
T - typhoon (Typhoon) - a tropical cyclone with a wind speed of more than 32.7 m/s (64 knots, 12 points on the Beaufort scale).

The direction and speed of movement of a tropical cyclone is indicated in the form of a probable sector of movement and circles of probable position after 12 and 24 hours. Beginning with the TS (Tropical Storm) stage, weather maps provide a text commentary on the tropical cyclone, and, beginning with the STS (Severe Tropical Storm) stage, the tropical cyclone is given a number and name.

An example of a tropical cyclone comment:

T 0408 TINGTING (0408) 942 hPa 26.2N 142.6E PSN GOOD NORTH 13 KT MAX WINDS 75 KT NEAR CENTER EXPECTED MAX WINDS 85 KT NEAR CENTER FOR NEXT 24 HOUR OVER 50 KT WITHIN 80 NM OVER 30 KT WITHIN 180 NM NE-SEMI CIRCULAR 270 NM ELSEWHERE.

T (typhoon) - stage of development of a tropical cyclone;

0408 - national number;
typhoon name - TINGTING;
(0408) - international number (eighth cyclone of 2004);
pressure in the center 942 hPa;
coordinates of the cyclone center are 56.2° N 6° E. The coordinates are determined with an accuracy of 30 nautical miles (PSN GOOD).

To indicate the accuracy of determining the coordinates of the cyclone center, the following notations are used:

PSN GOOD - accuracy up to 30 nautical miles;
PSN FAIR - accuracy 30-60 nautical miles;
PSN POOR - accuracy below 60 nautical miles;
moving at NORTH at 13 knots;
maximum wind speed of 75 knots near the center;
expected maximum wind speed of 85 knots for the next 24 hours.

Weather maps also indicate navigation hazards in the form of hydrometeorological warnings. Types of hydrometeorological warnings:

[W] - warning about wind (Warning) with a speed of up to 17 m/s (33 knots, 7 points on the Beaufort scale);
— warning of strong wind (Gale Warning) with a speed of 17-23 m/s (34-47 knots, 8-9 points on the Beaufort scale);
— warning about storm winds (Storm Warning) with a speed of 24-32 m/s (48-63 knots, 10-11 points on the Beaufort scale);
— warning about hurricane winds (Typhoon Warning) with a speed of more than 32 m/s (more than 63 knots, 12 points on the Beaufort scale).
FOG [W] - FOG Warning with visibility less than 4 miles. The boundaries of the warning area are indicated by a wavy line. If the warning area is small, its boundaries are not indicated. In this case, the area is considered to occupy a rectangle described around the warning sign.

Hydrometeorological data is plotted on weather maps according to a certain pattern, with symbols and numbers, around a circle indicating the location of a hydrometeorological station or ship.

Example of information from a hydrometeorological station on a weather map:

Information from the hydrometeorological station

In the center there is a circle depicting a hydrometeorological station. The shading of the circle shows the total number of clouds (N):

dd - wind direction, indicated by an arrow going to the center of the station circle from the side where the wind is blowing.

Signs and meaning of clouds

ff - wind speed, depicted as an arrow feather with the following symbols:

small feather corresponds to a wind speed of 2.5 m/s;
a large feather corresponds to a wind speed of 5 m/s;
the triangle corresponds to a wind speed of 25 m/s.

Wind speed

In the absence of wind (calm), the station symbol is depicted as a double circle.

VV is the horizontal visibility indicated by the code number according to the following table:

Horizontal visibility
Code	VV, km	Code	VV, km	Code	VV, km	Code	VV, km	Code	VV, km
90	<0,05	92	0,2	94	1	96	4	98	20
91	0,05	93	0,5	95	2	97	10	99	>50

PPP - atmospheric pressure in tenths of hectopascal. Numbers of thousands and hundreds of hectopascals are omitted. For example, a pressure of 987.4 hPa is plotted on the map as 874, and 1018.7 hPa as 187. The sign “xxx” indicates that the pressure was not measured.
TT - air temperature in degrees. The sign “xx” indicates that the temperature was not measured.
Nh is the number of low-level clouds (CL), and in their absence, the number of middle-level clouds (CM), in points.
CL, CM, CH - the shape of the clouds of the lower (Low), middle (Middle) and upper (High) tiers, respectively.
pp is the value of the pressure trend over the last 3 hours, expressed in tenths of hectopascal, the sign “+” or “-” before pp means, respectively, an increase or decrease in pressure over the last 3 hours.
a - characteristic of the pressure trend over the last 3 hours, indicated by symbols characterizing the course of pressure changes.
w is the weather between observation periods.
ww — weather at the time of observation.

Aerological observation methods

The simplest type of aerological observations is wind sounding, i.e., observations of the wind in a free atmosphere using pilot balloons. This is the name given to small rubber balloons filled with hydrogen and released into free flight. By observing the flight of a pilot balloon through theodolites, it is possible to establish the speed and direction of the wind at the altitudes at which the balloon flies. Currently, in aerological observations of the wind, radio detection methods are increasingly being used, i.e. radio direction finding of radiosondes and radar (radio wind sounding), providing information about the wind in the presence of cloud cover. Wind observations, in addition to their scientific role, have a direct bearing on aviation operations. The temperature probing described below has the same meaning.

Temperature probing are called regular (usually twice a day) releases into the high layers of the atmosphere balloons with rubber shells of a sufficiently large size, to which automatic instruments are attached to record temperature, pressure and air humidity. Until the thirties, these devices - meteorographers- they only provided a recording of the observed values on the recorder tape. At one height or another, the balloon, inflating, burst, and the device descended to the ground on a second, additional balloon or on a parachute. However, the return of the device to the place of release depended on chance, and there could be no talk of urgent use of observations. Since 1930 the method has spread radiosonde(first used in the USSR). The device attached to the ball is radiosonde, while still in flight, it sends radio signals from which the values of meteorological elements in high layers can be determined.

The radio sounding method created a revolution in the methods of aerological observations and in all modern meteorology. Radiosonde observations can be used for weather services without any delay, which particularly increases their value. Thanks to radio sounding, our knowledge about the layers of the atmosphere has increased incomparably to a height of 30-40 km. However, the accuracy of the readings of modern radiosondes is still not high enough.

Radio sounding has replaced other methods of temperature sounding - the rise of meteorographs on kites, tethered balloons, airplanes, etc. Airplane remains, however, an important tool for special complex observations that require the participation of an observer, for example, for studying the physical structure of clouds, for actinometric and atmospheric-electric observations. For the same purposes they are used balloons, and occasionally stratospheric balloons with hermetically sealed gondolas. The latest stratospheric balloon altitude record in the United States is close to 35 km.

In recent years, they have begun to practice releasing balloons without people not only with radiosondes, but also with more complex automatic instruments for various types of observations. Such large diameter balls with a polyethylene shell (transoceanic probes) reach heights of about 30-40 with a significant load of instruments km. They can fly at a certain given altitude (more precisely, on a given isobaric surface, i.e. in a layer with the same atmospheric pressure), while being in the air for many days in a row and transmitting radio signals. Determining the flight trajectories of such balloons is important for studying air transport in high layers of the atmosphere, especially over the oceans and at low latitudes, where the network of aerological stations is insufficient.

To study even higher layers of the atmosphere, releases are made meteorological And geophysical rockets with instruments whose readings are transmitted via radio. The lifting ceiling of rockets has now become unlimited.

In 1957-1958 In the USSR, and then in the USA, they managed to launch the first Earth satellites with automatic instruments into the upper layers of the atmosphere. Now a large number of such satellites revolve around the Earth, and the orbits of some of them reach heights of tens of thousands of kilometers. Since 1960, so-called weather satellites, designed to study the underlying layers of the atmosphere. They photograph and transmit via television the distribution of clouds around the globe, and also measure the radiation coming from the earth's surface.

In addition, an important method for studying the higher layers is observations of the propagation of radio waves.

FEDERAL SERVICE FOR HYDROMETEOROLOGY

AND ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Government agency

"Research and Production Association "Typhoon"

CENTRAL DESIGN BUREAU

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION

CATALOG-directory

Instruments and equipment for hydrometeorology and environmental pollution monitoring

PART 1

Hydrometeorological instruments and equipment

Obninsk 2006

Hydrometeorological DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT.. 8

1.1. DEVICES FOR MEASUREMENT AND REGISTRATION OF ATMOSPHERE PARAMETERS... 8

1.1.1. Instruments for measuring and recording wind parameters.. 8

Anemorumbometer M63M-1. 8

Anemormbograph M63MR.. 10

Signal anemometer AS-1. 12

Manual electronic anemometer ARE.. 14

Digital portable anemometer AP1M.. 16

Signal digital anemometer M-95-TsM.. 18

Cup anemometer MS-13. 20

Vane anemometer ASO-3. 21

Wind parameter sensor M-127M.. 22

Wind parameter sensor M-127. 24

Anemorummeter "Peleng-SF-03". 26

Wind parameter meter IPV-01. 28

Wind parameter meter IPV – 92M.. 32

Weather vanes FVL and FVT. 35

Electronic anemometer APR-2. 37

Manual induction anemometer ARI-49. 39

1.1.2. Instruments for measuring and recording atmospheric precipitation.. 41

Liquid precipitation sensor "Peleng SF-04". 41

Tretyakov O-1 precipitation gauge. 43

Pluviograph P-2M.. 45

1.1.3. Instruments for measuring and recording atmospheric pressure.. 47

Barometer M-67 (CONTROL) 47

Meteorological aneroid barograph M-22A.. 49

Barometer M-110. 51

Barometer BAMM-1 (meteorological) 53

Working network barometer BRS-1M.. 55

Special working barometer BRS-1s. 57

Two-channel pressure measurement unit BID-1. 59

Automated barometer MD-13. 61

Precision atmospheric pressure meter MD-13 "BARS". 63

Precision intelligent sensor - atmospheric pressure meter MD-13 "Falcon" 65

Quartz barometer MD-20. 67

1.1.4. Instruments for measuring and recording air temperature.. 69

Meteorological thermograph with bimetallic sensitive element M-16A 69

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM1. 71

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM2. 73

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM4. 75

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM 6. 77

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM7. 79

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM9. 80

1.1.5. Instruments for measuring and recording air humidity.. 82

Hygrograph M-21A.. 82

Aspiration psychrometer (mechanical) MV-4-2M.. 84

Aspiration psychrometer (electric) M-34M.. 86

Hygrometer M-19. 88

Hygrometer M-19-1. 90

Psychrometric hygrometers VIT-1 and VIT-2. 91

1.1.6. Instruments for measuring and recording radiant energy, heat flows in the air, duration of sunshine.. 93

Pyranometer "Peleng SF-06". 93

Actinometric module MA.. 96

Universal heliograph GU-1. 98

Meteorological support... 98

1.1.7. Instruments for measuring and recording meteorological visibility range (transparency), illumination, height of the lower boundary of clouds. 99

Cloud height sensor "DVO-2". 99

Cloud height meter "DVO-2". 101

RVO-3 cloud height recorder. 103

Cloud base meter “Peleng SD-01-2000” (INGO).” 105

Device for measuring meteorological visibility range "Peleng SF-01". 107

Pulse photometer FI-2. 109

Visibility range meter FI-3. 111

Laser cloud rangefinder DOL-1. 114

1.1.8. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of meteorological elements.. 116

Thermal anemometer TAM-M1. 116

Temperature meters IT-2. 119

Temperature and humidity meter MT-3. 121

Microprocessor meter of relative humidity and temperature (thermohygrometer) IVTM-7 MK-S-M. 124

Portable microprocessor device for measuring relative humidity and temperature (thermohygrometer) IVTM-7 K.. 126

Portable microprocessor recording thermohygrometer IVTM-7 M, IVTM-7 M2 and IVTM-7 M3. 128

Thermohygrometer IVA-6B2. 130

1.2.DEVICES FOR MEASUREMENT AND REGISTRATION OF SOIL AND SNOW COVER PARAMETERS, INCLUDING FOR PRODUCTION OF AGROMETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORK.. 132

1.2.1. Instruments for measuring and recording the temperature of soil, snow and vegetation cover, heat flows in soil and snow cover 132

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM1. 132

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM2. 134

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM3. 136

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM5. 138

Meteorological glass thermometer type TM10. 140

Soil thermometer AM-34. 142

Probe thermometer AM-6. 144

Electronic digital thermometer AMT-2. 146

1.2.2. Instruments for measuring and recording the height and density of snow cover and water reserves in it... 148

Snow measuring rod made of aluminum M-46. 148

Stationary snow measuring rod M-103. 149

Portable snow measuring rod M-104. 150

Weighing snow gauge VS-43. 151

Ice snow gauge GR-31. 153

1.2.3. Instruments for measuring and recording moisture in soil and vegetation.. 154

Multifunctional moisture meter IVDM-2. 154

1.3.DEVICES FOR PRODUCING AIR OBSERVATIONS... 156

1.3.1. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of aerological elements.. 156

Aerologist's automated workstation (AWS). 156

Upper-air radar station "BREEZ". 158

Meteorological temperature profiler (MTP5) 160

Small-sized upper-air radiosondes MARZ 2-1, 2-2. 162

Meteorological radiosonde. 164

Small-sized radiosondes MRZ-3A (1780 MHz) 166

Small-sized radiosondes MRZ-3AM.. 168

Small-sized radiosondes MRZ-3A (1680) 170

Shells for radio sounding of the atmosphere (No. 400, 500) 172

Radiosonde RF-95. 173

Small-sized upper-air radar MARL-A.. 175

1.4. DEVICES FOR PRODUCTION OF MARINE HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORKS.. 177

1.4.1. Instruments for measuring and recording the electrical conductivity of water 177

Electric salt meter GM-65M.. 177

1.4.2. Instruments for measuring and recording water level... 179

Marine water measuring rod GM-3. 179

1.4.3. Devices for taking samples of bottom sediments... 181

Benthic dredger. 181

1.4.4. Instruments for measuring and recording transparency, water color, underwater illumination... 182

White disc DB. 182

1.4.5. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of marine hydrometeorological elements.. 183

Hydrological meter GMU-2. 183

1.5. DEVICES FOR RIVER HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORK 186

1.5.1. Instruments for measuring and recording wave elements.. 186

Maximum-minimum wave-measuring pole GR-24. 186

1.5.2. Instruments for measuring and recording the speed and direction of flow.. 188

Flow velocity meter with recorder ISP-1. 188

Turntable signal converter PSV-1 (recorder) 190

1.5.3. Instruments for measuring and recording water level... 191

Portable water measuring rod GR-104. 191

Digital float level gauge with single-cable UPSO.. 192

Ground benchmark GR-43. 194

Metal pile PI-20. 195

1.5.4. Instruments for measuring and recording the depth of rivers and lakes.. 196

Echo sounder Praktik. 196

1.5.5. Instruments for measuring and recording evaporation from soil and water surface.. 198

Evaporometer GGI-3000. 198

1.5.6. Instruments for water sampling... 199

Bottle bathometer on a rod GR-16M.. 199

Molchanov GR-18 bathometer. 200

1.5.7. Devices for sampling bottom sediments.. 201

Rod bottom grabber GR-91. 201

GOIN TG-1.5 tube. 203

1.5.8. Instruments for measuring and recording ice phenomena.. 204

Ice measuring rod GR-7M.. 204

1.5.9. Instruments for measuring and recording complexes of hydrological elements.. 205

Hydrological complex GRK-1. 205

1.6.SYSTEMS, STATIONS, COMPLEXES FOR METEOROLOGY, HYDROLOGY AND OCEANOLOGY.. 208

Ground meteorological complex MA-6-3. 208

Meteorological complexes MK-14. 211

Meteorological complex MK-14-1M.. 214

(modification MK-14-1) 214

Automated weather observation system ASM.. 215

Integrated radio-technical airfield meteorological station KRAMS-4. 217

Meteorological station AMS LOMO METEO-02. 220

Automated meteorological station (AMS) 222

Automated meteorological measuring system AMIS-1. 224

Road measuring station DIS-01M.. 225

Remote meteorological station M-49. 227

Remote meteorological station M-49M.. 229

Automated information and measurement system "WEATHER". 231

Meteorological field kits KMP.. 232

Mini meteorological probe STD-2. 234

Hydrological complex GDS-3. 236

Automated meteorological radar complex METEOYECHYKA 238

1.7.devices for active influence on clouds and fogs... 240

Anti-hail product (PGI) “Alan”. 240

1.8 DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT FOR CHECKING HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.. 242

Exemplary portable barometer type BOP-1M.. 242

Digital portable reference pressure gauge MCP-2E.. 244

Digital precision two-channel pressure gauge MCP-2-0.3. 246

Exemplary eight-channel temperature meter IT-2. 248

Pneumoanemometer PO-30 for checking aspiration psychrometers. 250

1.9. EQUIPMENT AND AUXILIARY DEVICES FOR HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND WORK.. 251

1.9.1.Equipment and auxiliary devices for meteorological, agrometeorological and actinometric observations and work 251

Protective louvered booths type BP and BS.. 251

Meteorological mast M-82. 253

Meteorological mast M-82 (1,2,3) (FSUE NPO "Luch") 255

Volumetric soil drill AM-7. 256

Soil drill AM-26M.. 257

Display panel PI-02. 258

Weighing cup VS-1. 260

1.9.2.Equipment and auxiliary devices for river hydrological observations and work.. 261

Manual ice drill GR-113. 261

Annular drill PI-8. 262

Hanging view GR-75. 263

Hydrometric fish-shaped weights GGR.. 264

Hydrometric winch PI-24M.. 265

Lot of measuring LPR-48. 266

Frame for water thermometer OT-51. 267

Filter device Kuprina GR-60. 268

Remote hydrometric installation with manual drive GR-70. 269

UDT cable length indicator. 271

Hydrometric rod GR-56M.. 272

1.9.3.Equipment and auxiliary devices for marine hydrological observations and work.. 273

Hydrometric weights PI-1. 273

Bathometric winch. 274

Marine winch SP-77. 275

Flexible fastening mechanism GR-78. 276

1.9.4. EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES AUXILIARY FOR AIR OBSERVATIONS.. 277

Aerological radar computing complex "VECTOR-M". 277

Consumables for radio sounding of the atmosphere.. 279

1.10. OTHER INFORMATION... 280

Receiving station Liana®.. 280

UniScan receiving station. 282

EOScan receiving station. 284

ScanEx personal receiving station. 286

Meteorological telecommunication complex "TransMet". 288

Autonomous hardware and software complex for data transmission "VIP-Messenger". 294

Integrated system of documented communication and information processing "APS-meteo" 299

Batch controller VIP-M (basic version) 302

automated information system for weather forecaster-consultant "METEOCONSULTANT" 304

Automated information system "METEOEXPERT". 305

Automated information system for weather forecaster RC and ADC "METEOSERVER". 306

Message switching center "METEOTELEX". 307

Meteorological automated radar network workstation. 308

COMPANY ADDRESSES.. 310

Hydrometeorological DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT

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Meteorological instruments

Plan

Introduction

1. Weather site

1.1 Meteorological indicators measured at weather stations and instruments used to measure these indicators

1.2 Environmental performance

1.3 Meteorological site - requirements for placement. Construction and equipment of weather sites

1.4 Organization of meteorological observations

2. Meteorological instruments

2.1 To measure air pressure, use

2.2 To measure air temperature use

2.3 To determine humidity use

2.4 To determine wind speed and direction, use

2.5 To determine the amount of precipitation use

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere, its composition, structure, properties, physical and chemical processes occurring in the atmosphere. These processes have a great impact on human life.

A person needs to have an idea of the weather conditions that were, are and, most importantly, will accompany his existence on Earth. Without knowledge of weather conditions, it is impossible to properly conduct agricultural work, build and operate industrial enterprises, and ensure the normal functioning of transport, especially aviation and water transport.

At present, when there is an unfavorable ecological situation on Earth, without knowledge of the laws of meteorology it is unthinkable to predict environmental pollution, and failure to take into account weather conditions can lead to even greater pollution. Modern urbanization (the desire of the population to live in large cities) leads to the emergence of new, including meteorological, problems: for example, ventilation of cities and a local increase in air temperature in them. In turn, taking into account weather conditions makes it possible to reduce the harmful effects of polluted air (and, consequently, water and soil on which these substances are deposited from the atmosphere) on the human body.

The objectives of meteorology are to describe the state of the atmosphere at a given time, forecast its state for the future, develop environmental recommendations and, ultimately, provide conditions for safe and comfortable human existence.

Meteorological observations are measurements of meteorological quantities, as well as recording atmospheric phenomena. Meteorological quantities include: temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, amount and height of clouds, amount of precipitation, heat flows, etc. They are joined by quantities that do not directly reflect the properties of the atmosphere or atmospheric processes, but are closely related to them . These are the temperature of the soil and surface layer of water, evaporation, height and condition of snow cover, duration of sunshine, etc. Some stations make observations of solar and terrestrial radiation and atmospheric electricity.

Atmospheric phenomena include: thunderstorm, blizzard, dust storm, fog, a number of optical phenomena such as blue sky, rainbow, crowns, etc.

Meteorological observations of the state of the atmosphere beyond the surface layer and up to altitudes of about 40 km are called aerological observations. Observations of the state of the high layers of the atmosphere can be called aeronomic. They differ from aerological observations both in methodology and in observed parameters.

The most complete and accurate observations are made at meteorological and aerological observatories. The number of such observatories, however, is small. In addition, even the most accurate observations, but made at a small number of points, cannot provide a comprehensive picture of the state of the entire atmosphere, since atmospheric processes occur differently in different geographical settings. Therefore, in addition to meteorological observatories, observations of the main meteorological quantities are carried out at approximately 3,500 meteorological and 750 aerological stations located throughout the globe. weather weather site atmosphere

1. Weather site

Meteorological observations are then and only then comparable, accurate, meeting the objectives of the meteorological service when the requirements, instructions and instructions are met when installing instruments, and when making observations and processing materials by weather station workers strictly adhere to the instructions of the listed manuals. weather meteorological instrument atmosphere

A meteorological station (weather station) is an institution in which regular observations of the state of the atmosphere and atmospheric processes are carried out around the clock, including monitoring changes in individual meteorological elements (temperature, pressure, air humidity, wind speed and direction, cloudiness and precipitation, etc. ). The station has a meteorological site where the main meteorological instruments are located, and a closed room for processing observations. Meteorological stations of a country, region, district make up a meteorological network.

In addition to weather stations, the weather network includes weather stations that only monitor precipitation and snow cover.

Each weather station is a scientific unit of an extensive network of stations. The observation results of each station, already used in current operational work, are also valuable as a diary of meteorological processes, which can be subject to further scientific processing. Observations at each station must be carried out with the utmost care and precision. Devices must be adjusted and checked. The weather station must have the forms, books, tables, and instructions necessary for operation.

1. 1 Meteorological indicators measured at weather stations and instruments used to measure data display Ateli

· Air temperature (current, minimum and maximum), °C, - standard, minimum and maximum thermometers.

· Water temperature (current), °C, - standard thermometer.

· Soil temperature (current), °C, - angular thermometer.

· Atmospheric pressure, Pa, mm Hg. Art., - barometer (including aneroid barometer).

· Air humidity: relative humidity, %, - hygrometer and psychrometer; partial pressure of water vapor, mV; dew point, °C.

· Wind: wind speed (instantaneous, average and maximum), m/s, - anemometer; wind direction - in degrees of arc and bearings - weather vanes.

· Precipitation: quantity (thickness of the layer of water that fell on a horizontal surface), mm, - Tretyakov precipitation gauge, pluviograph; type (solid, liquid); intensity, mm/min; duration (start, end), hours and minutes.

· Snow cover: density, g/cm 3 ; water reserve (thickness of the water layer formed when the snow completely melts), mm, - snowmeter; height, cm

· Cloudiness: amount - in points; height of the lower and upper boundaries, m, - cloud height indicator; shape - according to the Cloud Atlas.

· Visibility: transparency of the atmosphere, %; meteorological visibility range (expert assessment), m or km.

· Solar radiation: duration of sunshine, hours and minutes; energy illumination, W/m2; radiation dose, J/cm2.

1.2 Environmental indicators

· Radioactivity: air - in curies or microroentgens per hour; water - in curies per cubic meter; soil surface - in curies per square meter; snow cover - in x-rays; precipitation - in roentgens per second - radiometers and dosimeters.

· Air pollution: most often measured in milligrams per cubic meter of air - chromatographs.

1.3 Meteorological site - accommodation requirements. Device and equipmentOlocation of meteorological sites

The meteorological site should be located in an open area at a considerable distance from the forest and residential buildings, especially multi-story buildings. Placing instruments away from buildings allows one to eliminate measurement errors associated with re-radiation of buildings or tall objects, correctly measure wind speed and direction, and ensure normal precipitation collection.

The requirements for a standard meteorological site are:

· size - 26x26 meters (the sites where actinometric observations (solar radiation measurements) are made have a size of 26x36 m)

· orientation of the sides of the site - clearly north, south, west, east (if the site is rectangular, then the orientation of the long side is from north to south)

· the location for the site should be typical for the surrounding area with a radius of 20-30 km

· the distance to low buildings and isolated trees should be at least 10 times their height, and the distance from a continuous forest or urban area - at least 20 times

· distance to ravines, cliffs, water edge - at least 100 m

· to avoid disruption of the natural cover at the meteorological site, it is allowed to walk only on paths

· all instruments at the meteorological site are placed according to a single scheme, which provides for the same orientation to the cardinal points, a certain height above the ground and other parameters

· the site fence and all auxiliary equipment (stands, booths, ladders, poles, masts, etc.) are painted white to prevent them from excessive heating by the sun's rays, which can affect the accuracy of measurements

· At meteorological stations, in addition to measurements using instruments (air and ground temperature, wind direction and speed, atmospheric pressure, amount of precipitation), visual observations of clouds and visibility range are made.

If the grass cover on the site grows strongly in the summer, then the grass must be mowed or trimmed, leaving no more than 30-40 cm. The cut grass must be removed from the site immediately. The snow cover on the site should not be disturbed, but in the spring it is necessary to remove snow or accelerate its melting by scattering or removing snow from the site. Snow is cleared from the roofs of the booths and from the protective funnel of the precipitation gauge. Devices on the site must be placed so that they do not shade each other. Thermometers should be 2 m from the ground. The booth door should face north. The ladder should not touch the booth.

The following instruments are used at basic type weather sites:

· thermometers for measuring air temperature (including horizontal minimum and horizontal maximum) and soil (they are tilted for ease of reading);

· barometers of various types (most often - aneroid barometers for measuring air pressure). They can be placed indoors rather than outdoors, since the air pressure is the same both indoors and outdoors;

· psychrometers and hygrometers for determining atmospheric humidity;

· anemometers for determining wind speed;

· weather vanes to determine the direction of the wind (sometimes anemormbographs are used, combining the functions of measuring and recording wind speed and direction);

· cloud height indicators (for example, IVO-1M); recording instruments (thermograph, hygrograph, pluviograph).

· precipitation gauges and snow gauges; Tretyakov precipitation gauges are most often used at weather stations.

In addition to the listed indicators, cloudiness is recorded at weather stations (the degree of cloud coverage of the sky, the type of clouds); the presence and intensity of various precipitation (dew, frost, ice), as well as fog; horizontal visibility; duration of sunshine; soil surface condition; height and density of snow cover. The weather station also records snowstorms, squalls, tornadoes, haze, storms, thunderstorms, and rainbows.

1.4 Organization of meteorological observations

All observations are entered with a simple pencil into established books or forms immediately after the reading of one or another device. Recordings from memory are not allowed. All corrections are made by crossing out the corrected numbers (so that they can still be read) and signing new ones at the top; Erasing numbers and text is not allowed. A clear record is especially important, facilitating both the initial processing of observations at the station and their use by Hydrometeorological Centers.

If observations are missed, the corresponding column of the book must remain blank. In such cases, it is completely unacceptable to enter any calculated results for the purpose of “restoring” observations, since the estimated data can easily turn out to be erroneous and cause more harm than missing readings from instruments. All cases of interruptions are noted on the observations page. It should be noted that gaps in observations devalue the entire work of the station, and therefore continuity of observations should be the basic rule for each weather station.

Readings made inaccurately on time are also significantly devalued. In such cases, in the column where the observation period is noted, the countdown time of the dry thermometer in the psychrometric booth is written.

The time spent on observations depends on the station equipment. In any case, readings should be made quickly enough, but, of course, not at the expense of accuracy.

A preliminary walkthrough of all installations is carried out 10-15 minutes, and in winter - half an hour before the due date. It is necessary to make sure that they are in good working order, and to prepare some instruments for the upcoming readings in order to guarantee the accuracy of observations, to make sure that the psychrometer is working, and the cambric is sufficiently saturated with water, that the pens of the recorders write correctly and there is enough ink.

In addition to readings from instruments and visual determination of visibility and cloudiness, recorded in separate columns of the book, the observer notes in the column “atmospheric phenomena” the beginning and end, type and intensity of such phenomena as precipitation, fog, dew, frost, frost, ice and others. To do this, it is necessary to carefully and continuously monitor the weather and in the intervals between urgent observations.

Weather observations must be long-term and continuous and carried out strictly. In accordance with international standards. For comparability, measurements of meteorological parameters throughout the world are carried out simultaneously (i.e. synchronously): at 00, 03, 06.09, 12, 15, 18 and 21 o'clock Greenwich time (zero time, Greenwich meridian). These are the so-called synoptic dates. The measurement results are immediately transmitted to the weather service via computer communication, telephone, telegraph or radio. Synoptic maps are compiled there and weather forecasts are developed.

Some meteorological measurements are carried out on their own terms: precipitation is measured four times a day, snow depth - once a day, snow density - once every five to ten days.

Stations providing weather service, after processing observations, encrypt weather data to send synoptic telegrams to the Hydrometeorological Center. The purpose of encryption is to significantly reduce the volume of a telegram while maximizing the amount of information sent. Obviously, digital encryption is most suitable for this purpose. In 1929, the International Meteorological Conference developed a meteorological code with which it was possible to describe the state of the atmosphere in full detail. This code was used for almost 20 years with only minor changes. On January 1, 1950, a new international code came into force, significantly different from the old one.

2 . Meteorological instruments

The range of measuring instruments used to monitor the state of the atmosphere and to study it is unusually wide: from the simplest thermometers to probing laser installations and special meteorological satellites. Meteorological instruments usually refer to those instruments that are used to take measurements at meteorological stations. These instruments are relatively simple; they satisfy the requirement of uniformity, which makes it possible to compare observations from different stations.

Meteorological instruments are installed on the station site in the open air. Only instruments for measuring pressure (barometers) are installed in the station premises, since there is practically no difference between the air pressure in the open air and indoors.

Instruments for measuring temperature and air humidity must be protected from solar radiation, precipitation and gusts of wind. Therefore, they are placed in specially designed booths, the so-called meteorological booths. Recording instruments are installed at the stations, providing continuous recording of the most important meteorological quantities (temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure and wind). Recording instruments are often designed so that their sensors are located on the platform or roof of a building in the open air, and the recording parts connected to the sensors by electrical transmission are inside the building.

Now let's look at instruments designed to measure individual meteorological elements.

2.1 To measure air pressure andWithenjoy

Barometer (Fig. 1) - (from the Greek baros - heaviness, weight and metreo - I measure), a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.

Figure 1 - Types of mercury barometers

Barometer (Fig. 1) - (from the Greek baros - heaviness, weight and metreo - I measure), a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The most common are: liquid barometers, based on balancing atmospheric pressure with the weight of a liquid column; deformation barometers, the operating principle of which is based on elastic deformations of the membrane box; hypsothermometers based on the dependence of the boiling point of certain liquids, such as water, on external pressure.

The most accurate standard instruments are mercury barometers: due to its high density, mercury makes it possible to obtain a relatively small column of liquid in barometers, convenient for measurement. Mercury barometers are two communicating vessels filled with mercury; one of them is a glass tube about 90 cm long sealed at the top, containing no air. The measure of atmospheric pressure is the pressure of a column of mercury, expressed in mm Hg. Art. or in mb.

To determine atmospheric pressure, corrections are introduced into the readings of a mercury barometer: 1) instrumental, excluding manufacturing errors; 2) an amendment to bring the barometer reading to 0°C, because barometer readings depend on temperature (with temperature changes, the density of mercury and the linear dimensions of the barometer parts change); 3) a correction to bring the barometer readings to the normal acceleration of gravity (gn = 9.80665 m/sec 2), it is due to the fact that the readings of mercury barometers depend on the latitude and altitude above sea level of the observation site.

Depending on the shape of the communicating vessels, mercury barometers are divided into 3 main types: cup, siphon and siphon-cup. Cup and siphon-cup barometers are practically used. At meteorological stations they use a station cup barometer. It consists of a barometric glass tube, lowered with its free end into bowl C. The entire barometric tube is enclosed in a brass frame, in the upper part of which a vertical slot is made; On the edge of the slot there is a scale for measuring the position of the meniscus of the mercury column. For precise aiming at the top of the meniscus and counting tenths, a special sight n is used, equipped with a vernier and moved by screw b. The height of the mercury column is measured by the position of the mercury in the glass tube, and the change in the position of the mercury level in the cup is taken into account using a compensated scale so that the reading on the scale is obtained directly in millibars. Each barometer has a small mercury thermometer T for entering temperature corrections. Cup barometers are available with measurement limits of 810--1070 mb and 680--1070 mb; counting accuracy 0.1 mb.

A siphon-cup barometer is used as a control barometer. It consists of two tubes lowered into a barometric bowl. One of the tubes is closed, and the other communicates with the atmosphere. When measuring pressure, the bottom of the cup is raised with a screw, bringing the meniscus in the open knee to scale zero, and then the position of the meniscus in the closed knee is measured. Pressure is determined by the difference in mercury levels in both knees. The measurement limit of this barometer is 880-1090 mb, the reading accuracy is 0.05 mb.

All mercury barometers are absolute instruments, because According to their readings, atmospheric pressure is directly measured.

Aneroid (Fig. 2) - (from the Greek a - negative particle, nerys - water, i.e. acting without the help of liquid), aneroid barometer, a device for measuring atmospheric pressure. The receiving part of the aneroid is a round metal box A with corrugated bases, inside of which a strong vacuum is created

Figure 2 - Aneroid

When atmospheric pressure increases, the box contracts and pulls the spring attached to it; when the pressure decreases, the spring unbends and the upper base of the box rises. The movement of the end of the spring is transmitted to the arrow B, which moves along the scale C. (In the latest designs, more elastic boxes are used instead of a spring.) An arc-shaped thermometer is attached to the aneroid scale, which serves to correct the aneroid readings for temperature. To obtain the true pressure value, the aneroid readings require corrections, which are determined by comparison with a mercury barometer. There are three corrections to the aneroid: on the scale - depends on the fact that the aneroid reacts differently to changes in pressure in different parts of the scale; on temperature - due to the dependence of the elastic properties of the aneroid box and spring on temperature; additional, due to changes in the elastic properties of the box and spring over time. The error in aneroid measurements is 1-2 mb. Due to their portability, aneroids are widely used on expeditions and also as altimeters. In the latter case, the aneroid scale is graduated in meters.

2.2 For measurementair temperatures are used

Meteorological thermometers are a group of liquid thermometers of a special design, intended for meteorological measurements mainly at meteorological stations. Depending on their purpose, different thermometers differ in size, design, measurement limits and scale divisions.

To determine the temperature and humidity of the air, mercury psychrometric thermometers are used in a stationary and aspiration psychrometer. The price of their division is 0.2°C; the lower limit of measurement is -35°C, the upper limit is 40°C (or -25°C and 50°C, respectively). At temperatures below -35°C (close to the freezing point of mercury), the readings of a mercury thermometer become unreliable; Therefore, to measure lower temperatures, they use a low-degree alcohol thermometer, the device of which is similar to a psychrometric one, the scale division value is 0.5 ° C, and the measurement limits vary: the lower one is -75, -65, -60 °C, and the upper one is 20, 25 °C .

Figure 3 - Thermometer

To measure the maximum temperature over a certain period of time, a mercury maximum thermometer is used (Fig. 3). Its scale division is 0.5°C; measurement range from -35 to 50°C (or from -20 to 70°C), working position almost horizontal (tank slightly lowered). The maximum temperature readings are maintained due to the presence of a pin 2 in the reservoir 1 and a vacuum in the capillary 3 above the mercury. As the temperature increases, excess mercury from the reservoir is forced into the capillary through a narrow ring-shaped hole between the pin and the walls of the capillary and remains there even when the temperature decreases (since there is a vacuum in the capillary). Thus, the position of the end of the mercury column relative to the scale corresponds to the maximum temperature value. Bringing the thermometer readings into line with the current temperature is done by shaking it. To measure the minimum temperature over a certain period of time, alcohol minimum thermometers are used. Scale division value is 0.5°C; the lower measurement limit varies from -75 to -41°C, the upper from 21 to 41°C. The working position of the thermometer is horizontal. Maintaining the minimum values is ensured by a pin - indicator 2 located in capillary 1 inside the alcohol. The thickening of the pin is smaller than the internal diameter of the capillary; therefore, as the temperature rises, the alcohol flowing from the reservoir into the capillary flows around the pin without displacing it. When the temperature decreases, the pin, after contacting the meniscus of the alcohol column, moves with it to the reservoir (since the surface tension forces of the alcohol film are greater than the friction forces) and remains in the position closest to the reservoir. The position of the end of the pin closest to the alcohol meniscus indicates the minimum temperature, and the meniscus indicates the current temperature. Before installing into the working position, the minimum thermometer is raised with the reservoir upward and held until the pin drops to the alcohol meniscus. A mercury thermometer is used to determine the temperature of the soil surface. Its scale divisions are 0.5°C; measurement limits vary: lower from -35 to -10°C, upper from 60 to 85°C. Soil temperature measurements at depths of 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm are made with a mercury crank thermometer (Savinov). Its scale division is 0.5°C; measurement limits from -10 to 50°C. Near the reservoir, the thermometer is bent at an angle of 135°, and the capillary from the reservoir to the beginning of the scale is thermally insulated, which reduces the influence on the T readings of the soil layer lying above its reservoir. Measurements of soil temperature at depths of up to several m are carried out with mercury soil-depth thermometers placed in special installations. Its scale division is 0.2 °C; measurement limits vary: lower -20, -10°С, and upper 30, 40°С. Less common are mercury-thallium psychrometric thermometers with limits from -50 to 35°C and some others.

In addition to the meteorological thermometer, resistance thermometers, thermoelectric, transistor, bimetallic, radiation, etc. are used in meteorology. Resistance thermometers are widely used in remote and automatic weather stations (metal resistors - copper or platinum) and in radiosondes (semiconductor resistors); thermoelectric ones are used to measure temperature gradients; transistor thermometers (thermotransistors) - in agrometeorology, for measuring the temperature of the topsoil; bimetallic thermometers (thermal converters) are used in thermographs to record temperature, radiation thermometers - in ground-based, aircraft and satellite installations to measure the temperature of various parts of the Earth's surface and cloud formations.

2.3 For ohumidity determinations are used

Figure 4 - Psychrometer

Psychrometer (Fig. 4) - (from the Greek psychros - cold and... meter), a device for measuring air humidity and its temperature. Consists of two thermometers - dry and wet. A dry thermometer shows the air temperature, and a wet thermometer, the heat sink of which is tied with wet cambric, shows its own temperature, depending on the intensity of evaporation occurring from the surface of its reservoir. Due to the heat consumption for evaporation, the wet-bulb thermometer readings are lower, the drier the air whose humidity is measured.

Based on the readings of dry and wet thermometers using a psychrometric table, nomograms or rulers calculated using a psychrometric formula, the water vapor pressure or relative humidity is determined. At negative temperatures below - 5°C, when the content of water vapor in the air is very low, the psychrometer gives unreliable results, so in this case a hair hygrometer is used.

Figure 5 - Types of hygrometers

There are several types of psychrometers: stationary, aspiration and remote. In station psychrometers, the thermometers are mounted on a special tripod in the meteorological booth. The main disadvantage of station psychrometers is the dependence of the wet-bulb readings on the air flow speed in the booth. In an aspiration psychrometer, the thermometers are mounted in a special frame that protects them from damage and the thermal effects of direct sunlight, and are blown using an aspirator (fan) with a flow of the air being tested at a constant speed of about 2 m/sec. At positive air temperatures, an aspiration psychrometer is the most reliable device for measuring air humidity and temperature. Remote psychrometers use resistance thermometers, thermistors, and thermocouples.

Hygrometer (Fig. 5) - (from hygro and meter), a device for measuring air humidity. There are several types of hygrometers, the operation of which is based on different principles: weight, hair, film, etc. A weight (absolute) hygrometer consists of a system of U-shaped tubes filled with a hygroscopic substance capable of absorbing moisture from the air. A certain amount of air is drawn through this system by a pump, the humidity of which is determined. Knowing the mass of the system before and after measurement, as well as the volume of air passed through, the absolute humidity is found.

The action of a hair hygrometer is based on the property of defatted human hair to change its length when air humidity changes, which allows you to measure relative humidity from 30 to 100%. Hair 1 is stretched over a metal frame 2. The change in hair length is transmitted to arrow 3 moving along the scale. A film hygrometer has a sensitive element made of an organic film, which expands when humidity increases and contracts when humidity decreases. The change in the position of the center of the film membrane 1 is transmitted to arrow 2. Hair and film hygrometers in winter are the main instruments for measuring air humidity. The readings of the hair and film hygrometer are periodically compared with the readings of a more accurate device - a psychrometer, which is also used to measure air humidity.

In an electrolytic hygrometer, a plate of electrical insulating material (glass, polystyrene) is coated with a hygroscopic layer of electrolyte - lithium chloride - with a binder material. When air humidity changes, the concentration of the electrolyte changes, and therefore its resistance; The disadvantage of this hygrometer is that the readings depend on temperature.

The action of a ceramic hygrometer is based on the dependence of the electrical resistance of solid and porous ceramic mass (a mixture of clay, silicon, kaolin and some metal oxides) on air humidity. A condensation hygrometer determines the dew point by the temperature of a cooled metal mirror at the moment when traces of water (or ice) condensing from the surrounding air appear on it. A condensation hygrometer consists of a device for cooling the mirror, an optical or electrical device that records the moment of condensation, and a thermometer that measures the temperature of the mirror. In modern condensation hygrometers, a semiconductor element is used to cool the mirror, the operating principle of which is based on the Lash effect, and the temperature of the mirror is measured by a wire resistance or semiconductor microthermometer built into it. Heated electrolytic hygrometers are becoming increasingly common, the operation of which is based on the principle of measuring the dew point over a saturated salt solution (usually lithium chloride), which for a given salt is in a certain dependence on humidity. The sensitive element consists of a resistance thermometer, the body of which is covered with a fiberglass stocking soaked in a solution of lithium chloride, and two platinum wire electrodes wound over the stocking, to which an alternating voltage is applied.

2.4 To determine speedand wind directions are used

Figure 6 - Anemometer

Anemometer (Fig. 6) - (from anemo... and...meter), a device for measuring wind speed and gas flows. The most common is a hand-held cup anemometer, which measures average wind speed. A horizontal cross with 4 hollow hemispheres (cups), convexly facing one way, rotates under the influence of the wind, since the pressure on the concave hemisphere is greater than on the convex hemisphere. This rotation is transmitted to the arrows of the revolution counter. The number of revolutions for a given period of time corresponds to a certain average wind speed for this time. With a small flow vorticity, the average wind speed over 100 sec is determined with an error of up to 0.1 m/sec. To determine the average speed of air flow in pipes and channels of ventilation systems, vane anemometers are used, the receiving part of which is a multi-blade mill turntable. The error of these anemometers is up to 0.05 m/sec. Instantaneous wind speed values are determined by other types of anemometers, in particular anemometers based on the manometric measurement method, as well as hot-wire anemometers.

Figure 7 - Weather vane

Weather vane (Fig. 7) - (from German Flugel or Dutch vieugel - wing), a device for determining the direction and measuring wind speed. The direction of the wind (see Fig.) is determined by the position of a two-blade wind vane, consisting of 2 plates 1, located at an angle, and a counterweight 2. The weather vane, being mounted on a metal tube 3, rotates freely on a steel rod. Under the influence of wind, it is installed in the direction of the wind so that the counterweight is directed towards it. The rod is fitted with a coupling 4 with pins oriented according to the main directions. The position of the counterweight relative to these pins determines the direction of the wind.

Wind speed is measured using a metal plate (board) 6 suspended vertically on a horizontal axis 5. The board rotates around a vertical axis together with the wind vane and, under the influence of the wind, is always set perpendicular to the air flow. Depending on the wind speed, the weather vane board deviates from its vertical position by one or another angle, measured along arc 7. The weather vane is placed on the mast at a height of 10-12 m from the ground surface.

2.5 To determineI use precipitation amounts

A precipitation gauge is a device for measuring atmospheric liquid and solid precipitation. Precipitation gauge designed by V.D. Tretyakov consists of a vessel (bucket) with a receiving area of 200 cm2 and a height of 40 cm, where precipitation is collected, and special protection that prevents precipitation from being blown out of it. The bucket is installed so that the receiving surface of the bucket is at a height of 2 m above the soil. The amount of precipitation in mm of water layer is measured using a measuring cup with divisions marked on it; The amount of solid precipitation is measured after it has melted.

Figure 8 - Pluviograph

Pluviograph is a device for continuous recording of the amount, duration and intensity of falling liquid precipitation. It consists of a receiver and a recording part, enclosed in a metal cabinet 1.3 m high.

Receiving vessel with a cross section of 500 square meters. cm, located at the top of the cabinet, has a cone-shaped bottom with several holes for water drainage. Sediment through funnel 1 and drain tube 2 falls into a cylindrical chamber 3, in which a hollow metal float 4 is placed. On the upper part of the vertical rod 5 connected to the float, there is an arrow 6 with a feather mounted on its end. To record precipitation, a drum 7 with a daily rotation is installed next to the float chamber on the rod. A tape is placed on the drum, laid out in such a way that the intervals between the vertical lines correspond to 10 minutes of time, and between the horizontal ones - 0.1 mm of precipitation. On the side of the float chamber there is a hole with a tube 8 into which a glass siphon 9 with a metal tip is inserted, tightly connected to the tube with a special coupling 10. When precipitation occurs, water enters the float chamber through the drain holes, funnel and drain tube and raises the float. Along with the float, the rod with the arrow also rises. In this case, the pen draws a curve on the tape (since the drum rotates at the same time), the steeper the steeper the curve, the greater the intensity of precipitation. When the amount of precipitation reaches 10 mm, the water level in the siphon tube and the float chamber becomes the same, and water spontaneously drains from the chamber through the siphon into a bucket standing at the bottom of the cabinet. In this case, the pen should draw a vertical straight line on the tape from top to bottom to the zero mark of the tape. In the absence of precipitation, the pen draws a horizontal line.

Snow meter is a density meter, a device for measuring the density of snow cover. The main part of the snow gauge is a hollow cylinder of a certain cross-section with a sawtooth edge, which, when measured, is immersed vertically in the snow until it comes into contact with the underlying surface, and then the cut column of snow is removed along with the cylinder. If the taken snow sample is weighed, then the snow meter is called a weight meter; if it is melted and the volume of water formed is determined, then it is called a volumetric one. The density of the snow cover is found by calculating the ratio of the mass of the sample taken to its volume. Gamma snow meters are beginning to be used, based on measuring the attenuation of gamma radiation by snow from a source placed at a certain depth in the snow cover.

Conclusion

The operating principles of a number of meteorological instruments were proposed back in the 17th-19th centuries. The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. characterized by the unification of basic meteorological instruments and the creation of national and international meteorological networks of stations. From the mid-40s. XX century Rapid progress is being made in meteorological instrumentation. New devices are being designed using the achievements of modern physics and technology: thermal and photoelements, semiconductors, radio communications and radar, lasers, various chemical reactions, sound location. Particularly noteworthy is the use of radar, radiometric and spectrometric equipment installed on meteorological artificial Earth satellites (MES) for meteorological purposes, as well as the development of laser methods for sensing the atmosphere. On the radar screen you can detect cloud clusters, areas of precipitation, thunderstorms, atmospheric vortices in the tropics (hurricanes and typhoons) at a considerable distance from the observer and trace their movement and evolution. The equipment installed on the satellite makes it possible to see clouds and cloud systems from above day and night, track changes in temperature with altitude, measure the wind over the oceans, etc. The use of lasers makes it possible to accurately determine small impurities of natural and anthropogenic origin, the optical properties of a cloudless atmosphere and clouds, the speed of their movement, etc. The widespread use of electronics (and, in particular, personal computers) significantly automates the processing of measurements, simplifies and speeds up obtaining final results. results. The creation of semi-automatic and fully automatic meteorological stations is being successfully implemented, transmitting their observations for a more or less long time without human intervention.

Literature

1. Morgunov V.K. Fundamentals of meteorology, climatology. Meteorological instruments and observation methods. Novosibirsk, 2005.

2. Sternzat M.S. Meteorological instruments and observations. St. Petersburg, 1968.

3. Khromov S.P. Meteorology and climatology. Moscow, 2004.

4. www.pogoda.ru.net

5. www.ecoera.ucoz.ru

6. www.meteoclubsgu.ucoz.ru

7. www.propogodu.ru

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