Foreign economic relations of China. External relations of modern China

62. Foreign economic relations of China

China is one of the oldest trading powers in the world. Even in ancient times, there was a Great Silk Road that connected the Celestial Empire with the countries of the Mediterranean. In the Middle Ages, it was replaced by another - the sea (monsoon) route, which ran along the southern coast of Asia. Silk, porcelain, paper, gems, and iron products were exported from China. Maritime trade flourished in China both in the early modern period and during the Great Period. geographical discoveries. But then China switched to politics closed doors", which lasted until the middle of the 19th century. and the so-called “Opium Wars”. And before the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the country's foreign economic relations clearly reflected the state of its economy. China exported traditional products of its Agriculture- silk, cotton, tea, soybeans and some types of mining raw materials, and imported food and various industrial products. And in the new China, during the periods of the “Great Leap Forward” and the “Cultural Revolution”, when the concept of “reliance on own strength", external economic relations played a secondary role.

Table 41

DYNAMICS OF CHINA'S FOREIGN TRADE, billion dollars.

But after the start of economic reforms and the transition to politics " open doors“The situation has changed radically. Foreign economic relations have become very important and have become one of the most important prerequisites for rapid economic growth. They have become a powerful lever for restructuring the Chinese economy, transferring it to market relations and accelerating its integration into international economic relations. Of all the known forms of such relations, two are of greatest importance for China - foreign trade and attracting foreign capital.

International trade This is the type of foreign economic relations in which China has achieved the most impressive successes. Suffice it to say that after the start of economic reforms, in terms of annual growth rates, foreign trade significantly outpaced even China’s very high GDP growth rates. As a result, the country’s economy, which two or three decades ago was considered one of the most closed in the world, has become one of the most open: back in 1979, less than 10% of GDP was formed in foreign trade, but in 1990 - 30%, and in 2005 – already 64% (according to other data – 37%). Such results in China were achieved largely through the decentralization of foreign economic activity, which is now carried out along with state-owned almost 7,000 other enterprises. The rational combination of the two models was also of great importance economic development– import-substituting (main) and export-oriented (auxiliary).

Picture of dynamics of foreign trade China is given by table 41.

Such high rates of development of foreign trade have led to a noticeable change in China’s position in the world “table of ranks.” Thus, the country’s share in world foreign trade turnover increased from 0.75% in 1978, when reforms began, to 7.5% in 2006. And in world exports this share (10.7%) is even greater. In terms of export volume, China, having overtaken the USA and Germany, took first place in the world in 2008, and in terms of import volume it is second only to the USA. Attracts attention and is stable active trade balance countries, moreover, with an ever-increasing excess of exports over imports. This is one of the most important sources of income, providing approximately 4/5 of all foreign exchange earnings. Thanks to him, the country came out on top in the world in such an important indicator as gold and foreign exchange reserves (at the end of 2006 - $1,200 billion).

Compared to the early 1980s. has changed a lot and commodity structure foreign trade of the People's Republic of China. The main direction of this restructuring was the improvement export, i.e., in increasing the share of finished industrial products in it compared to primary processed products and raw materials. Back in the late 1970s. finished industrial products, on the one hand, and raw materials with semi-finished products, on the other, correlated in the structure of exports as 50: 50. And in the late 1990s. – already like 85: 15. At the same time, the share of food, agricultural raw materials and mining products in China’s exports has noticeably decreased, while the share of engineering products has increased. Product share light industry, which lost first place to mechanical engineering, remained generally unchanged.

China is a traditional supplier to foreign markets of such light industrial products as cotton and silk fabrics, knitwear, clothing, haberdashery, shoes, toys, sports and tourism goods, plastic and porcelain products. Export products of mechanical engineering and electronics include machine tools, sea vessels, different kinds weapons, but consumer electronics products still predominate in it (for example, China provides 1/3 of the world's exports of radios). Like light industry products, they use in great demand on the world market. Along with this, the export of food and agricultural raw materials is also maintained. It is dominated by vegetables, fruits, fish and seafood, as well as cotton. China continues to export coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and cement.

Industrialization and modernization of the Chinese economy also determined the nature of its import, which is dominated by machinery, equipment, vehicles(cars, planes), industrial electronics. The main purpose of forced imports industrial equipment is to quickly increase the technological level of Chinese industry and the quality of its products. This is very important, because until now many products labeled “made in China” are not of particularly high quality. And also because such imports can help increase the competitiveness of Chinese goods on the world market. China also has to import oil and oil products, iron ores and, in addition, rolled ferrous metals and chemicals. It can be added that China is a major arms importer.

Geographical distribution of foreign trade The PRC reflects two inherently opposite trends - towards concentration and deconcentration (diversification). In fact, the country trades with more than 180 countries around the world, but only a dozen of them are among its main trading partners. Firstly, these are some of its neighbors - Japan, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand (not to mention Hong Kong), the development of trade relations with which is largely facilitated by the transport and geographical location. China's trade with these countries is characterized by both competition and cooperation. Financial and economic crisis in countries South-East Asia in 1997 led to a sharp decrease in Chinese exports to the countries of the subregion, but then they grew again. Moreover, in 2001, an important decision was made to create a free trade zone between China and ASEAN countries within ten years. Secondly, this is the United States, in trade with which China (it exports textiles, arts and crafts products, clothing, shoes, but also some mechanical engineering and electronics products to the United States) constantly has a positive trade balance. Thirdly, these are the countries of the European Union, primarily Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain, France and Italy. And fourthly, this is Russia. However, the volume of trade between the two countries until the end of the 1990s. remained at a low level, not corresponding to either the needs or capabilities of both countries: but already in 2006, exports from Russia to China reached $16 billion (third place after the Netherlands and Germany). China's exports are dominated by leather goods, clothing, footwear, and knitwear, while imports are dominated by machinery and equipment, mineral fertilizers and ferrous metals. By the way, cross-border trade between the northern provinces of China and the regions of the Russian Far East occupies a large place in this trade turnover. At the end of 2001, China was admitted to the WTO.

The second important form of China’s foreign economic relations is related to the monetary and financial sphere and is expressed primarily in import of capital, which is widely used to accelerate economic and social development countries. This area of China's foreign economic relations is growing even faster than foreign trade. Suffice it to say that back in the early 1990s. Imports of capital were at the level of $10 billion, in 2006 they reached $70 billion - this is the third place in the world and the first among developing countries. As for the total volume of foreign capital investments accumulated in the country, by the beginning of the 21st century. it reached 500 billion, and by 2006 - 1 trillion dollars. This figure is comparable to the GDP of the Republic of Korea and significantly exceeds the GDP of Iran, Indonesia, Australia, and Taiwan.

China uses various channels to attract funds from abroad. Of great importance are the loans and credits that the country receives from foreign governments and international financial organizations, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. However, even more important for China have become direct investments, in terms of the volume of attraction of which it is second only to the United States. Although more than 100 countries invest their capital in China, only a few countries and territories are among the main investors. Until 1997, the non-competitive first place among them was occupied by Hong Kong, and subsequent places fell to Taiwan, the USA, Japan, and Singapore. More than 4/5 of all these investments settled in the Eastern Economic Zone of China and were associated with free economic zones different types. Let us add that in the 1990s. and China itself also began to export capital - in the form of loans and direct investments (in 2006 - $16 billion).

SOUTH CHINA SEA

Other forms of external economic relations include production cooperation.

At the end of the 1990s. in the country there were about 300 thousand joint ventures with the participation of foreign capital, the share of which in foreign trade, according to some estimates, was 1/4, and according to others, even scientific and technical relations, which so far are expressed mainly in purchases by China technical documentation and know-how in Western countries. If we also take into account the service sector, then China began to receive increasing income from international tourism(50 million international tourist arrivals in 2006). It also provides labor services: Tens and even hundreds of millions of Chinese go to work in other countries every year.

The preservation of their territories is the result of centuries-old traditions. China, foreign policy which has unique features, consistently defends its interests and at the same time skillfully builds relations with neighboring states. Today, this country confidently lays claim to world leadership, and this has become possible, among other things, thanks to the “new” foreign policy. The three largest states on the planet - China, Russia, the USA - are currently the most important geopolitical force, and the position of the Celestial Empire in this triad looks very convincing.

History of China's foreign relations

For three millennia, China, whose borders still include historical territories, has existed as a major and important power in the region. This vast experience in establishing relationships with a wide variety of neighbors and consistently defending one’s own interests is creatively applied in the country’s modern foreign policy.

Has left its mark on China's international relations general philosophy a nation that is based largely on Confucianism. According to Chinese views, a true ruler does not consider anything external, therefore international relations have always been considered as part of the internal policy of the state. Another feature of ideas about statehood in China is that, according to their views, the Celestial Empire has no end, it covers the whole world. Therefore, China sees itself as a kind of global empire, a “Middle State”. China's foreign and domestic policies are based on the main principle - Sino-centrism. This easily explains the fairly active expansion in different periods of the country’s history. At the same time, Chinese rulers have always believed that influence is much more significant than power, so China established special relations with its neighbors. Its penetration into other countries is associated with economics and culture.

Until the mid-19th century, the country existed within the framework of the imperial ideology of Greater China, and only the European invasion forced the Celestial Empire to change its principles of relations with its neighbors and other states. In 1949, the People's Republic of China is proclaimed, and this leads to significant changes in foreign policy. Although socialist China declared partnerships with all countries, the world was gradually divided into two camps, and the country existed in its socialist wing, together with the USSR. In the 70s, the Chinese government changed this distribution of power and declared that China was between superpowers and third world countries, and that China would never want to become a superpower. But by the 80s, the concept of “three worlds” began to falter - the “coordinate theory” of foreign policy appeared. The strengthening of the United States and its attempt to create a unipolar world have led China to declare a new international concept and its new strategic course.

"New" foreign policy

In 1982, the government of the country proclaimed “ new China", which exists on the principles of peaceful coexistence with all states of the world. The country's leadership skillfully establishes international relations within the framework of its doctrine and at the same time respects its interests, both economic and political. At the end of the 20th century, there was an increase in the political ambitions of the United States, which felt itself to be the only superpower that could dictate its own world order. This does not suit China, and, in the spirit national character and diplomatic traditions, the country's leadership does not make any statements and changes its line of behavior. China's successful economic and domestic policies place the state among the most successfully developing at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. At the same time, the country diligently avoids joining any side of the world’s numerous geopolitical conflicts and tries to protect exclusively its interests. But increasing pressure from the United States sometimes forces the country's leadership to take various steps. In China, there is a separation of concepts such as state and strategic boundaries. The former are recognized as unshakable and inviolable, while the latter, in fact, have no limits. This is the country’s sphere of interest, and it extends to almost all corners globe. This concept of strategic boundaries is the basis for modern Chinese foreign policy.

Geopolitics

At the beginning of the 21st century, the planet is engulfed by the era of geopolitics, i.e., there is an active redistribution of spheres of influence between countries. Moreover, not only superpowers declare their interests, but also small states that do not want to become raw materials appendages to developed countries. This leads to the emergence of conflicts, including armed ones, and alliances. Each state is looking for the most beneficial development path and line of behavior for itself. In this regard, the foreign policy of China could not help but change. People's Republic. In addition, at the present stage, the Celestial Empire has gained significant economic and military power, which allows it to claim greater weight in geopolitics. First of all, China began to oppose maintaining a unipolar model of the world; it advocates multipolarity, and therefore, willy-nilly, it has to face a conflict of interests with the United States. However, the PRC is skillfully building its own line of behavior, which, as usual, is focused on defending its economic and domestic interests. China does not directly declare claims to dominance, but is gradually pursuing its “quiet” expansion of the world.

Principles of foreign policy

China declares that its main mission is to maintain peace throughout the world and support universal development in every possible way. The country has always been a supporter of peaceful coexistence with its neighbors, and this is the basic principle of the Celestial Empire in building international relations. In 1982, the country adopted a Charter, which sets out the basic principles of China's foreign policy. There are only 5 of them:

The principle of mutual respect for sovereignty and state borders;

The principle of non-aggression;

The principle of non-interference in the affairs of other states and the prevention of interference in domestic policy own country;

The principle of equality in relationships;

The principle of peace with all states of the planet.

Later, these basic postulates were deciphered and adjusted taking into account changing world conditions, although their essence remained unchanged. Modern foreign policy strategy assumes that China will contribute in every possible way to the development of a multipolar world and the stability of the international community.

The state proclaims the principle of democracy and respects differences in cultures and the right of peoples to self-determination of their path. The Celestial Empire also opposes all forms of terrorism and in every possible way contributes to the creation of a fair economic and political world order. China strives to establish friendly and mutually beneficial relations with its neighbors in the region, as well as with all countries on the planet.

These basic postulates are the basis of China’s policy, but in each individual region in which the country has geopolitical interests, they are implemented in a specific strategy for building relationships.

China and the USA: partnership and confrontation

Relations between China and the United States have a long and difficult history. These countries have long been in a latent conflict, which was associated with America's opposition to the Chinese communist regime and support for the Kuomintang. The reduction in tension began only in the 70s of the 20th century; diplomatic relations between the United States and China were established in 1979. For a long time The Chinese army was ready to defend the country’s territorial interests in the event of an attack by America, which considered the Celestial Empire its enemy. In 2001, the US Secretary of State stated that she considered China not an adversary, but a competitor in economic relations, which meant a change in policy. America could not ignore the rapid growth of the Chinese economy and the build-up of its military power. In 2009, the United States even proposed to the leader of the Celestial Empire to create a special political and economic format - G2, an alliance of two superpowers. But China refused. He often disagrees with American policies and does not want to take part of the responsibility for them. The volume of trade between states is constantly growing, China is actively investing in American assets, all this only reinforces the need for partnerships in politics. But the United States periodically tries to impose its own scenarios of behavior on China, to which the leadership of the Celestial Empire reacts with sharp resistance. Therefore, relations between these countries are constantly balancing between confrontation and partnership. China says it is ready to be “friends” with the United States, but will under no circumstances allow its interference in its politics. In particular, the fate of the island of Taiwan is a constant stumbling block.

China and Japan: complicated neighborly relations

The relationship between the two neighbors was often accompanied by serious disagreements and strong influence on each other. From the history of these states there are several serious wars (7th century, late 19th and mid-20th centuries) that had serious consequences. In 1937, Japan attacked China. She received serious support from Germany and Italy. significantly inferior to the Japanese, which allowed the Land of the Rising Sun to quickly capture large northern territories of the Celestial Empire. And today, the consequences of that war are an obstacle to the establishment of more friendly relations between China and Japan. But these two economic giants are today too closely linked by trade relations to allow themselves to conflict. Therefore, the countries are moving towards gradual rapprochement, although many contradictions remain unresolved. For example, China and Japan will not come to an agreement on several problem areas, including Taiwan, which does not allow the countries to get much closer. But in the 21st century, relations between these Asian economic giants have warmed significantly.

China and Russia: friendship and cooperation

Two huge countries located on the same continent simply cannot help but try to build friendly relations. The history of interaction between the two countries goes back more than 4 centuries. During this time there were different periods, bad and good, but it was impossible to interrupt the connection between the states, they were too closely intertwined. In 1927, official ties were interrupted for several years, but at the end of the 30s, ties began to be restored. After World War II, communist leader Mao Zedong came to power in China, and close cooperation between the USSR and the PRC began. But with N. Khrushchev coming to power in the USSR, relations deteriorated, and only thanks to great diplomatic efforts they were able to be improved. With perestroika, relations between Russia and China are warming significantly, although there is controversial issues. At the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century, China is becoming the most important strategic partner for Russia. At this time, trade ties are strengthening, technology exchange is growing, and political agreements are being concluded. Although China, as usual, first of all looks after its own interests and steadfastly defends them, and Russia sometimes has to make concessions to its big neighbor. But both countries understand the importance of their partnership, which is why today Russia and China are great friends, political and economic partners.

China and India: a strategic partnership

These two largest ones have a more than 2-thousand-year relationship. The modern stage began in the late 40s of the 20th century, when India recognized the PRC and established diplomatic contacts with it. There are border disputes between states, which prevents greater rapprochement between states. However, economic Indian-Chinese relations are only improving and expanding, which entails a warming of political contacts. But China remains true to its strategy and does not concede in its most important positions, carrying out a quiet expansion, primarily in the Indian markets.

China and South America

A major power like China has its interests around the world. Moreover, not only the closest neighbors or countries of equal level, but also very remote regions fall within the state’s field of influence. Thus, China, whose foreign policy differs significantly from the behavior in the international arena of other superpowers, has been actively seeking common ground with the countries of South America for many years. These efforts are achieving success. True to its policy, China is concluding cooperation agreements with the countries of this region and is actively establishing trade ties. Chinese business in South America is associated with the construction of roads, power plants, oil and gas production, and partnerships are developing in the field of space and automotive industry.

China and Africa

The Chinese government is pursuing the same active policy in African countries. The PRC is making serious investments in the development of the states of the “black” continent. Today, Chinese capital is present in the mining, manufacturing, military industries, construction of roads and industrial infrastructure. China adheres to a de-ideologized policy, adhering to its principles of respect for other cultures and partnership. Experts note that Chinese investments in Africa today are already so serious that they are changing the economic and political landscape of this region. The influence of Europe and the United States on African countries is gradually decreasing, and thus is being realized the main objective China - multipolarity of the world.

China and Asian countries

China, as an Asian country, pays a lot of attention to neighboring countries. At the same time, the stated basic principles are consistently implemented in foreign policy. Experts note that the Chinese government is extremely interested in a peaceful and partner-like neighborhood with all Asian countries. Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan are an area of special attention for China. There are many problems in this region that worsened with the collapse of the USSR, but China is trying to resolve the situation in its favor. The PRC has achieved serious success in establishing relations with Pakistan. The countries are jointly developing a nuclear program, which is very scary for the United States and India. Today, China is negotiating the joint construction of an oil pipeline to provide the Celestial Empire with this valuable resource.

China and North Korea

An important strategic partner of China is its closest neighbor, the DPRK. The leadership of the Celestial Empire supported North Korea in the war in the mid-20th century and always expressed readiness to provide assistance, including military assistance, when necessary. China, whose foreign policy is always aimed at protecting its interests, is looking for a reliable partner in the Far Eastern region in Korea. Today China is the DPRK's largest trading partner, and relations between the countries are developing positively. For both states, partnerships in the region are very important, so they have excellent prospects for cooperation.

Territorial conflicts

Despite all its diplomatic skill, China, whose foreign policy is distinguished by subtlety and well-thought-out, cannot solve all international problems. The country has a number of disputed territories that complicate relations with other countries. Taiwan is a sore subject for China. For more than 50 years, the leadership of the two Chinese republics has not been able to resolve the issue of sovereignty. The island's leadership has been supporting the US government for years, and this has not allowed the conflict to be resolved. Another unsolvable problem is Tibet. China, whose border was determined in 1950, after the revolution, believes that Tibet has been part of the Celestial Empire since the 13th century. But the indigenous Tibetans, led by the Dalai Lama, believe they have the right to sovereignty. China is pursuing a tough policy towards the separatists, and so far there is no solution to this problem in sight. China also has territorial disputes with Turkestan, Inner Mongolia, and Japan. The Celestial Empire is very jealous of its lands and does not want to make concessions. As a result of the collapse of the USSR, China was able to obtain part of the territories of Tajikistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.

One of the main elements of the reform policy in the PRC is an “open” foreign economic policy, which is considered as the most important prerequisite for the economic development of the country Lomakin V.K. World economy: Textbook for universities. 2nd ed., revised. and additional M.: Finance, UNITY-DANA, 2012. P. 632..

The transition to an open policy in the field of foreign economic relations led to a significant adjustment to the concept of “self-reliance”, which in its modern interpretation not only does not exclude the use of advanced foreign equipment, technology, experience in management and organization of production, as well as foreign financial resources, but, on the contrary , implies the active use of these factors in order to strengthen economic potential and increase technical level National economy.

The stated tasks are solved by expanding foreign trade, attracting foreign capital in a productive form, and using foreign loans.

The most developed form of foreign economic relations of the PRC is international trade.

China's foreign trade is characterized by the predominance of industrialized Western countries, whose share is about 58% of China's foreign trade turnover. China's main trading partners are Japan, the USA, and Western Europe. They account for over 70% of equipment purchases and 90% of technical documentation and know-how. At the same time, the bulk of Chinese purchases of machinery and equipment abroad falls on Japan, which is explained by geographical proximity and the active export promotion policy pursued by the Japanese government, which provides China with financing for purchases on preferential terms, which helps it pay for expensive imports. Japan accounts for on average about 50% of Chinese purchases of machinery and equipment. Hong Kong occupied a special place among the leading partners of the PRC. D. Hong Kong has become the main re-export base of Chinese goods to markets Western countries. About 30% of goods re-exported through Hong Kong were sent to the USA, Western European countries, and Japan.

According to data released by the General Administration of Customs of the People's Republic of China, the total volume of China's foreign trade turnover reached 2 trillion 972.76 billion US dollars, an increase of 34.7% compared to the 2010 level. We can conclude that China's foreign trade has already reached pre-crisis levels.

In December 2010, China's imports and exports set a historical record, with the country's foreign trade volume reaching US$295.22 billion, an increase of 21.4 percent. Including, exports amounted to 154.15 billion US dollars (an increase of 17.9%), imports - 141.07 billion US dollars (an increase of 25.6%). Merchandise exports account for 75-80% of all foreign exchange revenues. In terms of export volume, China ranks 13th in the world.

Because of cheap labor, China is competitive in many labor-intensive industries. As a result, products made in China occupy more and more space around the world in areas such as electrical household appliances and other high-tech products, clothing and accessories, Construction Materials, furniture, etc. Compared to prices of European and American products, prices for Chinese products are 2-3 times lower, with the same level of quality.

The dependence of the Chinese economy on imports has increased (5% in 1998 and 10% in 2012), which indicates that the PRC is quite deeply involved in world economic relations. In terms of import volume, China ranks 16th in the world. The PRC's share in world trade increased almost fivefold over the period from 1998 to 2012, but still remains quite low and amounts to about 3%. It should be noted that in 1998 it was only 0.75%.

About 60% of the increase was achieved through the import of equipment and technology industrial production, and over 8 thousand new types of products entered the domestic market.

China's imports showed a growth of 34% in 2010 with 380.55 billion US dollars. The main items for Chinese imports are raw materials and energy sources, like: crude oil, virgin plastics, metals, integrated circuits and electronic components, as well as high-tech production lines and complexes.

The country ranks first in the world in the export of cotton fabrics and natural silk. The textile industry is the most important source of foreign exchange income for China. At the same time, textiles are one of the most sensitive issues in trade relations with industrialized countries. Fearing the rapid growth of imports of Chinese textile products into their domestic markets, a number of countries demanded that the PRC limit their imports.

Mechanical engineering and electrical products account for at least 20% of exports. Export products of Chinese engineering include metalworking machines, shipbuilding equipment, bicycles, household electrical appliances. The penetration of these products into the world market is hampered by low quality, after-sales service capabilities and does not yet withstand competition with other suppliers of these products, among which Taiwan and South Korea stand out. Specific gravity Chinese mechanical engineering products in world exports do not exceed 0.6%.

China's main trading partners were Japan, the USA, and Western European countries. They account for over 70% of equipment purchases and 90% of technical documentation and know-how. At the same time, the bulk of Chinese purchases of machinery and equipment abroad falls on Japan, which is explained by geographical proximity and the active export promotion policy pursued by the Japanese government, which provides China with financing for purchases on preferential terms, which helps it pay for expensive imports. Japan accounts for on average about 50% of Chinese purchases of machinery and equipment. The USA is a leader in the supply of high-tech products, aircraft and electronic computer equipment. Hong Kong occupied a special place among the leading partners of the PRC.

The leading position among China's trading partners in 2010 was occupied by the European Union. Trade with the EU increased by 31.8% in 12 months, reaching $479.71 billion. Second place is occupied by the United States, the volume of trade with which in 2010 increased by 29.2%, amounting to $385.34 billion. Trade with Japan increased by 30.2% over the year, reaching $297.77 billion.

According to China Customs data, 2010 saw rapid growth in bilateral trade with countries such as Russia, India, Brazil, Australia and ASEAN countries. In particular, trade turnover with Russia increased by 43.1% compared to 2009 and reached $55.45 billion. Today, China has actively entered into foreign trade and is actively filling the free sectors of the economies of partner countries in foreign trade, thanks to cheap labor, investments in intangible assets and moving from a producer of cheap and low-quality everyday products to one of largest producers high-tech quality products, competing with such giants as Japan, South Korea and the USA

China is one of the oldest trading powers in the world. Even in ancient times, there was a Great Silk Road that connected the Celestial Empire with the countries of the Mediterranean. In the Middle Ages, it was replaced by another - the sea (monsoon) route, which ran along the southern coast of Asia. Silk, porcelain, paper, gems, and iron products were exported from China. Maritime trade flourished in China both in early modern times and during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries. But then China switched to a “closed door” policy, which lasted until the mid-19th century. and the so-called “Opium Wars”. And before the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the country's foreign economic relations clearly reflected the state of its economy. China exported the traditional products of its agriculture - silk, cotton, tea, soybeans and some types of mining raw materials, and imported food and various industrial products. And in the new China, during the periods of the “Great Leap Forward” and the “Cultural Revolution”, when the concept of “self-reliance” dominated, external economic relations played a secondary role.

Table 41

DYNAMICS OF CHINA'S FOREIGN TRADE, billion dollars.

But after the start of economic reforms and the transition to the “open door” policy, the situation changed radically. Foreign economic relations have become very important and have become one of the most important prerequisites for rapid economic growth. They have become a powerful lever for restructuring the Chinese economy, transferring it to market relations and accelerating its integration into international economic relations. Of all the known forms of such relations, two are of greatest importance for China - foreign trade and attracting foreign capital.

International trade This is the type of foreign economic relations in which China has achieved the most impressive successes. Suffice it to say that after the start of economic reforms, in terms of annual growth rates, foreign trade significantly outpaced even China’s very high GDP growth rates. As a result, the country’s economy, which two or three decades ago was considered one of the most closed in the world, has become one of the most open: back in 1979, less than 10% of GDP was formed in foreign trade, but in 1990 - 30%, and in 2005 – already 64% (according to other data – 37%). Such results in China were achieved largely through the decentralization of foreign economic activity, which is now carried out along with state-owned almost 7,000 other enterprises. The rational combination of two models of economic development – import-substituting (main) and export-oriented (auxiliary) – was also of great importance.

Picture of dynamics of foreign trade China is given by table 41.

Compared to the early 1980s. has changed a lot and commodity structure foreign trade of the People's Republic of China. The main direction of this restructuring was the improvement export, i.e., in increasing the share of finished industrial products in it compared to primary processed products and raw materials. Back in the late 1970s. finished industrial products, on the one hand, and raw materials with semi-finished products, on the other, correlated in the structure of exports as 50: 50. And in the late 1990s. – already like 85: 15. At the same time, the share of food, agricultural raw materials and mining products in China’s exports has noticeably decreased, while the share of engineering products has increased. The share of light industry products, which gave way to mechanical engineering in first place, remained generally unchanged.

China is a traditional supplier to foreign markets of such light industrial products as cotton and silk fabrics, knitwear, clothing, haberdashery, shoes, toys, sports and tourism goods, plastic and porcelain products. Export products of mechanical engineering and electronics include machine tools, sea vessels, various types of weapons, but consumer electronics products still predominate in them (for example, China provides 1/3 of the world export of radios). Like light industrial products, they are in great demand on the world market. Along with this, the export of food and agricultural raw materials is also maintained. It is dominated by vegetables, fruits, fish and seafood, as well as cotton. China continues to export coal, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, and cement.

Industrialization and modernization of the Chinese economy also determined the nature of its import, which is dominated by machines, equipment, vehicles (cars, airplanes), industrial electronics. The main goal of the forced import of industrial equipment is to quickly increase the technological level of Chinese industry and the quality of its products. This is very important, because until now many products labeled “made in China” are not of particularly high quality. And also because such imports can help increase the competitiveness of Chinese goods on the world market. China also has to import oil and oil products, iron ores and, in addition, rolled ferrous metals and chemicals. It can be added that China is a major arms importer.

Geographical distribution of foreign trade The PRC reflects two inherently opposite trends - towards concentration and deconcentration (diversification). In fact, the country trades with more than 180 countries around the world, but only a dozen of them are among its main trading partners. Firstly, these are some of its neighbors - Japan, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand (not to mention Hong Kong), the development of trade relations with which is largely facilitated by the transport and geographical location. China's trade with these countries is characterized by both competition and cooperation. The financial and economic crisis in Southeast Asia in 1997 led to a sharp decrease in Chinese exports to the countries of the subregion, but then they grew again. Moreover, in 2001, an important decision was made to create a free trade zone between China and ASEAN countries within ten years. Secondly, this is the United States, in trade with which China (it exports textiles, arts and crafts products, clothing, shoes, but also some mechanical engineering and electronics products to the United States) constantly has a positive trade balance. Thirdly, these are the countries of the European Union, primarily Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain, France and Italy. And fourthly, this is Russia. However, the volume of trade between the two countries until the end of the 1990s. remained at a low level, not corresponding to either the needs or capabilities of both countries: but already in 2006, exports from Russia to China reached $16 billion (third place after the Netherlands and Germany). China's exports are dominated by leather goods, clothing, footwear, and knitwear, while imports are dominated by machinery and equipment, mineral fertilizers, and ferrous metals. By the way, cross-border trade between the northern provinces of China and the regions of the Russian Far East occupies a large place in this trade turnover. At the end of 2001, China was admitted to the WTO.

The second important form of China’s foreign economic relations is related to the monetary and financial sphere and is expressed primarily in import of capital, which is widely used to accelerate the economic and social development of the country. This area of China's foreign economic relations is growing even faster than foreign trade. Suffice it to say that back in the early 1990s. Imports of capital were at the level of $10 billion, in 2006 they reached $70 billion - this is the third place in the world and the first among developing countries. As for the total volume of foreign capital investments accumulated in the country, by the beginning of the 21st century. it reached 500 billion, and by 2006 - 1 trillion dollars. This figure is comparable to the GDP of the Republic of Korea and significantly exceeds the GDP of Iran, Indonesia, Australia, and Taiwan.

China uses various channels to attract funds from abroad. Of great importance are the loans and credits that the country receives from foreign governments and international financial organizations, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. However, even more important for China have become direct investments, in terms of the volume of attraction of which it is second only to the United States. Although more than 100 countries invest their capital in China, only a few countries and territories are among the main investors. Until 1997, the non-competitive first place among them was occupied by Hong Kong, and subsequent places fell to Taiwan, the USA, Japan, and Singapore. More than 4/5 of all these investments settled in the Eastern Economic Zone of China and were associated with free economic zones of various types. Let us add that in the 1990s. and China itself also began to export capital - in the form of loans and direct investments (in 2006 - $16 billion).

Foreign economic relations of the PRC(geopolitics)

China is a socialist country with a planned economy. Nevertheless foreign investors it doesn't bother me. The political and economic systems of the PRC are stable and the influx of foreign capital is growing every year. From 1980 to 1998 the influx of foreign capital increased almost 4 times. To the middle 1998 . in the Celestial Empire there were more than 314.5 thousand enterprises with the participation of foreign capital. Contract volume of investments - 545.37 billion dollars 6

The main direct investors in the Chinese economy are Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao and Singapore, i.e. the countries where the largest number of Chinese people live. Entrepreneurs in Taiwan

[Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore are the main investors in the Chinese economy. Their contribution amounts to 60-80% of the sum of all contributions from business circles in all other countries of the world.

IN last years Taiwan has become the second investor in the Chinese economy after Hong Kong, and after Hong Kong's inclusion in China's geopolitical system, it has become the number one investor.

Chinese exports are growing rapidly: by about 25-30% annually. If in 1979 . in foreign trade less than 10% of the country's GNP was formed, in 1993 - almost 36%, then in 1998 . (as of July) - more than 45% 7 . In the first half of the year 1998 . the total volume of China's foreign trade reached 151.4 billion dollars: exports amounted to 87, and imports - 64.4 billion dollars. In connection with the crisis in Southeast Asia, China was actively developing markets in Europe, Africa, and Latin America. China's exports to the EU 1998 . increased by 25.5: in the USA - by 18.1%, in Africa - by 44.7%, Latin America- by 38.1%, etc. 3

China, like Japan, has a trade surplus with the United States (more than $30 billion per year) and ranks second in size after Japan.

Any geopolitical tension between China and the United States will help strengthen Japanese-Chinese ties and strengthen Japanese capital in the Asia-Pacific region. This threat serves to align the strategic interests of the United States and China. In addition to economic interests, the historical memory of the Chinese and Americans works to bring the two countries closer together - the memory of the crimes of the Japanese on the eve of and during the Second World War.

Relations between Japan and China began to develop in the 60s, during the “cold” and especially “ hot war"between the USSR and China (battles on Damansky Island), China and Vietnam. Japan acts primarily as a creditor, and is now the main trading partner of China, which is often the buyer Japanese technology, technology and goods. Of course, Japan seeks to restrain the growth of Chinese technical, technological and export potential, not allowing its neighbor into the traditional markets for its products. Japanese-Chinese economic and trade relations worsened in the second half of the late 90s XX c: The island nation is experiencing depression, annual growth Japan's GDP does not exceed 2%, and the Chinese economy, despite the severe financial and economic crisis in the Asia-Pacific countries, has produced and continues to produce GDP growth of 10-8% per year 9 .

Therefore, although the PRC and Japan are interested in developing bilateral economic and trade relations, at the same time they act as competitors in the markets of the Asia-Pacific region, ASEAN, the USA, Africa, Europe, etc.

England, Germany, France and Italy are increasing the sale of their goods in China. But in recent years they have begun to pay more attention to the growth of direct investment in the economy of this country.

The relations of the PRC with the ASEAN countries and the “four little dragons” are characterized by processes of competition, attraction and repulsion. Nevertheless, in relations with the “small dragons” the main line is the establishment of economic and production cooperation. Competition prevails when it comes to ASEAN countries. ASEAN countries fear a military threat from China. According to Western experts, Taiwan has developed a long-term program that provides for its transformation into an Asia-Pacific regional economic center capable of taking a central place in the Asia-Pacific region and even in the world. Taiwan intend to do operating base investment and business activities of local and foreign companies. In addition, according to the program developers, it should become the center of manufacturing, financial, telecommunications and transport activity in the Asia-Pacific region, i.e., become a leader in the development of regional economic integration 10 .

China also has a similar plan - the “Pudong Plan”. It involves the formation in the Shanghai area of a gigantic (with a population of 100 million people) international industrial, financial, trade, transport and cultural center, capable of taking a leading role in the Asia-Pacific region 11 . We dwell on this question because in XXI c, most likely there will be a unification of two Chinas into one and then it will turn into: the most powerful financial and economic empire.