How to create a new kind of plants. Crossing of plant species. Pure grades!!! or hybrids! what to choose

Oleg asks: "Hello, Elena! Tell me, please, is the crossing of different types of plants, vegetables and fruits by scientists not an interference in God's creation and a sin? In time, it will be possible to cross different animals, for example, a cat and a dog. So there is a possibility that from one simpler living creature a more complex one appeared, and so on until the appearance of a person?

Greetings, Oleg!

Scientists-breeders mainly carry out intraspecific crossings (hybridization) for the appearance of desirable traits (for humans, of course) in animals, plants and microorganisms, thereby achieving the creation of new or improved breeds, varieties, strains.

Within a species, crossing of individuals is relatively easy due to the similarity of their genetic material and anatomical and physiological features. Although this is not always the case, for example, in natural conditions it is impossible to cross a tiny Chihuahua dog and a huge mastiff.

But already on the way of crossing individuals of different species (and even more so different genera) there are molecular genetic barriers that prevent the development of full-fledged organisms. And they are expressed the stronger, the further the crossed species and genera are separated from each other. Due to the significantly different genomes of the parents, unbalanced sets of chromosomes, unfavorable combinations of genes can occur in hybrids, the processes of cell division and the formation of gametes (sex cells) can be disrupted, the death of the zygote (fertilized egg), etc. can occur. Hybrids can be partially or completely sterile (sterile ), with reduced viability up to lethality (although in some cases in the first generation there is a sharp increase in viability - heterosis), developmental anomalies may appear, in particular, reproductive organs, or the so-called chimeric tissues (genetically heterogeneous), etc. Apparently, therefore, the Lord warned His people: "... do not bring your livestock with a different breed; do not sow your field with two kinds [of seeds]" ().

Under natural conditions, cases of interspecific crossing are extremely rare.

There are examples of artificial distant hybridization: mule (horse + donkey), bester (beluga + sterlet), liger (lion + tigress), taigon (tiger + lioness), leopon (lion + female leopard), plum cat (plum + apricot), clementine (orange + tangerine), etc. In some cases, scientists manage to remove the negative consequences of distant hybridization, for example, fertile hybrids of wheat and rye (triticale), radish and cabbage (rafanobrassica) have been obtained.

And now your questions. Is artificial hybridization an interference with God's creation? In a certain sense, yes, if a person creates a version that is different from natural, which can be compared, say, with the use of decorative cosmetics by women to improve their appearance. Is artificial hybridization a sin? Is eating meat a sin? The Lord, out of our hardness of heart, allows the killing of living beings for the sake of food. Probably, also due to our hardness of heart, he also allows selective experimentation in order to improve the consumer properties of products that people need. In the same row - and the creation of drugs (in this case, laboratory animals are used and killed). Sadly, all this is the reality of a society where sin reigns and the “prince of this world” rules.

Do successful crosses put creationism at risk? In no way. Against.

You know that everything multiplies "after its kind." The biblical "kind" is not the biological species of modern taxonomy. After all, a rich variety of species appeared after the Flood due to the variability of the characteristics of terrestrial organisms from Noah's Ark and aquatic inhabitants that survived outside the Ark, while adapting them to new environmental conditions. It is difficult to outline the biblical “kind”, the genetic potential of which is significant and was originally set at creation. It may include modern taxa such as species and genus, but probably not above a (sub)family. It is possible, for example, that large cats from the modern systematic genera of the feline family go back to one original “genus”, and small felines to one or two others. It is clear that the species and genera that emerged from the biblical "genus" include their own, to some extent, depleted and altered (in relation to the original) genetic material. The combination of these not quite complementary parts (in interspecific and intergeneric crossings) encounters obstacles at the molecular-genetic level, which means that it does not allow giving rise to a full-fledged organism, although in rare cases this can happen within the biblical “kind”.

What does it say? The fact that there can be no crosses between “cat and dog” and “up to a person” in principle.

Another moment. Compare 580,000 base pairs, 482 genes in the DNA of a single-celled mycoplasma and 3.2 billion base pairs, about 30,000 genes in human DNA. If you imagine a hypothetical path "from amoeba to man", think about where the new genetic information came from? There is nowhere for it to come naturally. We know that information only comes from an intelligent source. So who is the Author of amoeba and man?

God's blessings!

Read more on the topic "Creation":

Man in his desire to improve nature is moving further and further. Thanks to modern achievements in genetics, farmers are getting more and more unusual and interesting hybrids that can satisfy the most daring desires of consumers.
In addition, globalization leads to the spread of plant species that are not typical for a given climatic zone. We have long gone from the exotic pineapples and bananas, hybrid nectarines and miniols, etc. have become familiar.

yellow watermelon (38 kcal, vitamins A, C)

Outside, it is the usual striped watermelon, but at the same time bright yellow inside. Another feature is the very small number of bones. This watermelon is the result of crossing a wild (yellow inside, but completely tasteless) watermelon with a cultivated watermelon. The result is juicy and tender, but less sweet than red.
They are grown in Spain (round varieties) and Thailand (oval). There is a variety "Lunar" bred by the breeder Sokolov from Astrakhan. This strain has very sweet flavors with some exotic notes like mango or lemon or pumpkin.
There is also a Ukrainian hybrid based on watermelon (“kavun”) and pumpkin (“garbuza”) - “kavbuz”. It is more like a pumpkin with a watermelon flavor and is ideal for making porridges.

purple potatoes (72 kcal, vitamin C, B vitamins, potassium, iron, magnesium and zinc)

A potato with a pink, yellow or purple skin no longer surprises anyone. But scientists from Colorado State University managed to get a potato with a purple color inside. The basis of the variety was the Andean highland potatoes, and the color is due to the high content of anthocyanins. These substances are the strongest antioxidants, the properties of which are preserved even after cooking.
They called the variety "Purple Majesty", it is already actively sold in England and begins in Scotland, the climate of which is most suitable for the variety. The popularization of the variety was facilitated by the English culinary specialist Jamie Oliver. These purple potatoes with the usual taste look great in the form of mashed potatoes, an indescribable rich color, baked, and of course french fries.

romanesco cabbage (25 kcal, carotene, vitamin C, mineral salts, zinc)

The ethereal appearance of this close relative of broccoli and cauliflower perfectly illustrates the concept of "fractal". Its pale green inflorescences are cone-shaped and arranged in a spiral on a head of cabbage. This cabbage comes from Italy, it has been on the market for about 10 years, and Dutch breeders contributed to its popularization, slightly improving the vegetable known to Italian housewives since the 16th century.

Romanesco has little fiber and a lot of useful substances, due to which it is easily digested. Interestingly, when cooking this cabbage, there is no characteristic cabbage smell that children do not like so much. In addition, the exotic appearance of the space vegetable makes you want to try it. Romanesco is prepared like regular broccoli - boiled, stewed, added to pasta and salads.

Pluot (57 kcal, fiber, vitamin C)

From the crossing of such plant species as plums (plum) and apricots (apricot), two hybrids were obtained pluot, which looks more like a plum, and aprium, more like an apricot. Both hybrids are named after the first syllables of the English names of the parent species.
Outwardly, the fruits of the pluot are painted in pink, green, burgundy or purple, the inside is from white to rich plum. These hybrids were bred in the Dave Wilson Nursery in 1989. Now in the world there are already two varieties of aprium, eleven varieties of pluot, one nectaplama (a hybrid of nectarine and plum), one pichplama (a hybrid of peach and plum).
Plows are used for making juice, desserts, homemade preparations and wine. The taste of this fruit is much sweeter than both plums and apricots.

watermelon radish (20 kcal, folic acid, vitamin C)

Watermelon radishes live up to their name - they are bright raspberry inside and covered with a white-green skin on the outside, just like a watermelon. In shape and size, too (diameter 7-8 cm), it resembles a medium-sized radish or turnip. It tastes quite ordinary - bitter at the skin and sweetish in the middle. The truth is more solid, not as juicy and crispy as usual.
It looks wonderful in a salad, simply sliced ​​with sesame seeds or salt. It is also recommended to make mashed potatoes from it, bake, add to vegetables for frying.

Yoshta (40 kcal, anthocyanins with antioxidant properties, vitamins C, P)

Crossing such plant species as currant (johannisbeere) and gooseberry (stachelbeere) gave the joshtu berry with fruits close to black, the size of a cherry, sweet and sour, slightly astringent taste, pleasantly reminiscent of currants.
Michurin also dreamed of creating a currant the size of a gooseberry, but not prickly. He managed to bring out the gooseberry "Black Moor" dark purple. By 1939 in Berlin, Paul Lorenz was also breeding similar hybrids. In connection with the war, these works were stopped. And only in 1970 Rudolf Bauer managed to get the perfect plant. Now there are two varieties of yoshta: "Black" (brown-burgundy) and "Red" (faded red).
During the season, 7-10 kg of berries are obtained from the yoshta bush. They are used in homemade preparations, desserts, for flavoring soda. Yoshta is good for gastrointestinal diseases, for removing heavy metals and radioactive substances from the body, and improving blood circulation.

Broccolini (43 kcal, calcium, vitamins A, C, iron, fiber, folic acid)

In the cabbage family, as a result of crossing ordinary broccoli and Chinese broccoli (gailana), a new cabbage similar to asparagus on top with a head of broccoli was obtained.
Broccolini is slightly sweet, does not have a sharp cabbage spirit, with a peppery note, delicate in taste, reminiscent of asparagus and broccoli at the same time. It contains many nutrients and is low in calories.
In the USA, Brazil, Asian countries, Spain, broccolini is commonly used as a side dish. It is served fresh, drizzled with butter or lightly fried in butter.

Nashy (46 kcal, antioxidants, phosphorus, calcium, fiber)

Another result of crossing plants is neshes. They got it from an apple and a pear in Asia several centuries ago. There it is called Asian, water, sand or Japanese pear. The fruit looks like a round apple, but tastes like a juicy, crunchy pear. The color of nashi is from pale green to orange. Unlike ordinary pear, nashi is harder, so it is better stored and transported.
Neshi is quite juicy, so it is better to use it in salads or solo. It is also good as an appetizer for wine along with cheese and grapes. Now about 10 popular commercial varieties are grown in Australia, the USA, New Zealand, France, Chile and Cyprus.

Yuzu (30 kcal, vitamin C)

Yuzu (Japanese lemon) is a hybrid of mandarin and ornamental citrus (Ichang papeda). The green or yellow tangerine-sized fruit with a bumpy skin has a sour taste and a bright aroma. It has been used by the Japanese since the 7th century, when Buddhist monks brought this fruit from the mainland to the islands. Yuzu is popular in Chinese and Korean cuisine.
It has a completely unusual aroma - citrus, with floral hints and notes of pine needles. Most often used for flavoring, the zest is used as a seasoning. This seasoning is added to meat and fish dishes, miso soup, noodles. Jams, alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, desserts, syrups are also prepared with zest. The juice is similar to lemon juice (sour and fragrant, but milder) and is the base of ponzu sauce, also used as vinegar.
It also has a cult significance in Japan. On December 22, on the winter solstice, it is customary to take baths with these fruits, which symbolize the sun. Its aroma drives away evil forces, protects against colds. Animals are dipped in the same bath, and plants are then watered with water.

Growing plants at home is a very common hobby. But most fans do not attach importance to the rules for caring for plants. Although this care takes very little time. And the result a hundredfold pays for all the efforts spent. After all, if everything is done correctly, then the plants are healthy, grow well and please with their appearance. Therefore, every nature lover involved in growing plants needs to know the answers to at least the main questions related to this activity.

How to cross plants? Crossbreeding of plants is carried out in order to obtain a new variety with the traits necessary for the breeder. Therefore, the first step is to decide what qualities are desired in the new plant. Then a selection of parent plants is made, each of which has one or more of these dominant qualities. It makes sense to use plants that have grown in different regions - this makes their heredity richer. But still, before embarking on breeding, you should still familiarize yourself with specialized literature, for example, with a description of the methods of work of I. V. Michurin.

How to save a plant? There are times when the plant begins to die for some reason. The first sign is usually the disease state of the leaves. Then you need to check the state of the stem. If it has become too soft, brittle or rotten, then there is hope that the roots are healthy. But if they have deteriorated, then this means that the plant has died. In other cases, you can try to save him. To do this, you will have to cut off the damaged part. But the stems are not completely cut off, leaving at least a few centimeters above the ground. Then you need to place the plant so as to halve the amount of solar time it receives and water it sparingly when the soil is completely dry. Such measures will help the plant fight the disease and new shoots will appear in a few months.

How to care for indoor plants? In order for the plants to be healthy and look beautiful, you need to follow a few mandatory rules. First, they need to be properly watered. You can not flood the plant, it is better to underfill. This should be done when the ground is dry. Water should be at room temperature. It must be remembered that tropical plants also require daily spraying. Another important condition for plant life is lighting. Be sure to find out what intensity and duration of lighting is required for the plant and provide the necessary conditions for it. Temperature is the third important factor for the life and health of plants. Most of them are suitable for room temperature. But some types of colder regions need a lower temperature in winter. This can be ensured by placing a flower on a glazed balcony.

From time immemorial, man has been creating hybrids of both plants and animals. The most ancient in the practice of animal husbandry are hybrids of a horse with a donkey (mule, hinny) and a zebra (zebroid), a one-humped camel with a two-humped (nar), a yak and a zebu with cattle. In the pig industry, hybridization of domestic pigs with wild boar is practiced to improve adaptability to local conditions. The 20th century gave rise to a host of new hybrids: in poultry, fish farming and cattle breeding. And then there are ligers and tigers. And there is no end in sight...

Snail or plant?

Not so long ago, a message appeared in the media about the discovery of a hybrid of a plant with an animal. It was about a sea snail, whose length is three centimeters, living on the Atlantic coast of North America. A group of scientists from US and South Korean universities that discovered this miracle organism named it Elysia chlorotica.

According to New Scientist magazine, these sea snails "are a solar-powered form: they eat plants and have the ability to photosynthesize." The hybrid found is a kind of gelatinous green plant. It looks like a piece of wood and has some of its potential, lasting for months, thanks to the algae genes it consumes. Not only does the snail receive chloroplasts - the intracellular organelles of a plant cell where photosynthesis takes place, which allows plants to convert sunlight into energy - it also stores them in its cells located along the intestine. The most curious thing is that if Elysia chlorotica feeds on algae for the first time (two weeks), then for the rest of its life - on average, its duration does not exceed a year - it may not consume food. So far, scientists have not been able to reveal all the secrets of this strange creature, whose chloroplast DNA contains only 10% of the encoded protein necessary for the active life of the snail. Nevertheless, they published a number of observations and conclusions in the journals of the American Academy of Sciences.

It can't be because...

The discovery of a hybrid of a plant with an animal caused a sensation in the scientific world, but the idea of ​​crossing animals with animals of similar species dawned on mankind many years ago. A classic example of hybridization is the mule, a hybrid of a mare and a donkey.

This is a strong, hardy animal that is used in much more difficult conditions than parental forms. The mule owes this to a phenomenon called heterosis by scientists and observed both in domestic animals and in plants: during interbreeding or interspecific crosses, first-generation hybrids experience especially powerful development and increase in viability. By the way, heterosis is widely used in industrial poultry farming, for example, when breeding broiler chickens and in pig production. In nature, cases of crossing a wild animal with representatives of other species are extremely rare. Let's say Grant's and Thompson's gazelles coexist happily in mixed groups. These species have a lot in common, and only experts can distinguish them from each other. Despite this, cases of crossing of these two species have not been noted.

Domestic dogs can mate indiscriminately with other species, but wild canine species such as wolves, foxes, and coyotes only breed within their own species. In addition to the obvious reasons, this is also hindered by the fact that in many groups of animals and plants, powerful but sterile hybrids are formed during interspecific crossings, an illustration of which is the mentioned mule. Since there are many examples of sterile hybrids, scientists have come to the conclusion that the exchange of genes between different populations or population systems is weakened or prevented by various barriers, and as soon as they interfere with the widespread hybridization of animals or plants of related species, they should even more interfere with the emergence of a plant hybrid. with an animal.

From numerous experiments, scientists have concluded that hybrids almost always appear in captivity as a result of unnatural living conditions or artificial insemination. Hybrids are funny ... An example of this is the majestic liger - a hybrid of a male lion and a female tiger - the largest representative of the cat family. As well as the tigrolev - a cross between a male tiger and a female lion. However, Tiger Rolls, or Tigers, on the contrary, have a tendency to dwarfism and are usually smaller in size than their parents. Male ligers and tigers are sterile. while females can sometimes bear offspring. One tiger lived from 1978 to 1998 in India, the other died at the age of 24 in 2003 at the Beijing Zoo. In the American Institute of Protected and Rare Species in Miami lives a liger named Hercules, whose height at the withers is 3 m.

The first cub appeared in our country in the Novosibirsk Zoo in 2004, and then two more cubs were born. A leopard is the result of crossing a male leopard with a female lion. His head is like his mother's, and his body is like his father's. And there are also hybrids of hybrids - these are crossbreeds between a male tiger and a female liger / tiger lion or a male lion and a female liger / tiger lion. Such second-level hybrids are extremely rare and are mostly privately owned. The beginning of the process of crossing big cats dates back to the days when zookeepers wanted to get as many strange creatures as possible to attract the public. Hybridization has its origins in the 1800s, when zoos were roving menageries designed to make a profit, not to conserve animal species. In India, for example, interbreeding was first recorded in 1837, when a princess of the Indian state of Jamnagar presented a big cat hybrid to Queen Victoria. Despite the fact that all these giant feline hybrids invariably attract zoo visitors, many scientists believe that this way of hybridization is hopeless and even harmful. In any case, there is no practical benefit from such hybrids, while they themselves are prone to disease and early death. ...and helpful...

Recently, there have been reports in the domestic media about the successful hybridization of a she-wolf and a dog in the kennel of the canine department of the Perm Military Institute of Internal Troops. A significant part of the hybrid animals obtained there has well-marked signs of tolerance, that is, tolerance for humans, which means that almost the main barrier to the practical use of wolf sperm in dog breeding can, in principle, be overcome. In addition, all wolf dogs are emotionally very restrained. They have much more physical endurance than dogs. They quickly master a platform with obstacles, a fence more than 2 meters high easily jumps from a place, shots and explosions do not frighten them. When trained, they very quickly understand and learn what is required of them, and, in addition, they undoubtedly have an excellent instinct. So, the speed of detecting a conditional offender in caches during a search of an object does not exceed one minute for them, while for dogs, 1.5-4 minutes, with a standard of up to 6 minutes. Of course, wolf-dogs, cold-resistant hybrids of carp with Amur carp, sheep with mouflon and argali are not as impressive as ligers and tigers, but they bring more benefits to humanity. And what can we expect in the future from a tiny snail - life will show.

Some interesting photos...

In plant breeding, a method such as hybridization is used. At the same time, organisms that differ in heredity are crossed, that is, one or more pairs of gene alleles, and therefore one or more external signs. This selection method includes inbreeding (intraspecific hybridization) and outbreeding (remote or interspecific hybridization).

Since ancient times, people have observed the process of natural hybridization. So, hybrid animals - mules - were known as early as 2000 BC. For the first time, artificial hybridization was made by horticulturalist T. Fairchild, who crossed two types of carnations. The scientific foundations of genetics were laid by Mendel, who conducted experiments on the hybridization of peas.

Principle of hybridization

It consists in the fact that during fertilization, two germ cells of different genotypes merge to form a zygote, from which a new organism develops, inheriting the characteristics of both parents. Natural hybridization occurs in nature, artificial hybridization is carried out by man in selection or for other purposes. At the same time, in angiosperms, the flowers of the mother plant are pollinated by pollen from another species or variety.

In plant breeding, hybridization is used extremely widely. If this method is necessary for the purpose of combining the desired properties of the original organisms, this is "combination breeding". In the case when the goal is to obtain and select genotypes of better quality compared to parental forms, one speaks of "transgressive selection".

In crop production, hybridization of forms within the same species, or intraspecific, is common. As a result of using this method, most of the varieties of cultivated plants have been created. Distant hybridization is a more complex and time-consuming method of developing hybrids. The main problem in obtaining distant hybrids is the incompatibility of gametes of crossed forms and the sterility of the resulting hybrids.

Technological processes of hybridization of various agricultural crops differ significantly from each other. To obtain hybrid forms of corn, plants of two varieties are sown in rows alternately, and sultans on mother plants are cut a few days before flowering. In cultures with cross-pollination of flowers, such as rye, castration of the flowers of the mother plants is used. In fruit trees, castration is performed 1-2 days before the buds open, and the female flowers are isolated by covering with gauze. After opening the buds, pre-prepared pollen is applied to the stigmas of the pistils. New plants are grown from hybrid seeds by placing the seeds in a special nutrient medium and providing favorable conditions for growth.

Types of hybridization

Most of us eat hybrid fruits without even realizing it. And although many people believe that such food is not very tasty like regular varieties, but they are very popular with people. There was a time when a certain fruit was only available at one time in the markets. Now, in grocery stores you will find not only seasonal fruits, but also some types of non-seasonal ones. Some of these fruits may have been imported from elsewhere, but more often you will see fruits from local varieties. These fruits are hybrids. These fruits are derived by crossing two or more similar varieties within the same species or genus. As a result, the crossed plant receives the properties of both parents.

Hybridization is nothing new, it even happens naturally to produce new fruits. Artificial hybridization is done to increase crop yields, improve nutritional properties and get rid of some pests.

The disadvantage of these fruits is that they may not have the taste and original aroma. Another disadvantage is that once the seeds of these plants are planted, they will not always grow into the same plants as the hybrid parent plant.

Hybrids are not genetically modified fruits. The gene of another fruit or even an animal is introduced into genetically modified fruits. So, for example, an animal gene was introduced into tomatoes, this gene blocks the synthesis of the enzyme responsible for fruit ripening.

Learn more about citrus fruit hybrids here.

Agli fruit is obtained by crossing grapefruit and tangerine. It is a large sweet juicy fruit with greenish yellow wrinkled skin. The agli fruit has a sweet pulp. Mainly cultivated in Florida. Ugli is slightly larger than a grapefruit. The taste is more like a mixture of lemon and tangerine.

Orange is a hybrid of mandarin and pomelo, and it began to be cultivated as early as 2.5 thousand years BC.

Aprium turned out, thanks to the crossing of a plum with an apricot. Apriums are available in the US in June. The fruit is dry and not very juicy, but very sweet with an orange aroma. The taste of ripe fruit is similar to apricot.

Boysenberry is a cross between blackberry, raspberry and loganberry. The berry is larger than a blackberry with large seeds. The berry has a rich burgundy color. And becomes black when ripe.

Grape fruit is a combination of grape and apple. Grape + apple = grapple. The fruit tastes like a grape but looks like an apple. Graple usually looks larger and the flesh is sweeter and more crispy. Grape is a brand name that has been specially processed to make the pulp taste like grapes. The grapple is a variety of the Fuji apple.

Grapefruit is a hybrid of two citrus species, pomelo and orange. The fruit has red flesh. Grapefruit comes with yellow, orange peel and types: white, pink and red. The color does not affect the taste, while pink and red grapefruit will add vitamin A to your diet.

Dekopon is a cross between Kiyomi tangor and Ponkan. Kiyomi tangor itself is a cross between Trovita orange and Mikan or Satsuma. Decopan is seedless and has a very sweet fruit. Decopan was introduced in Japan in 1972. The generic name for decopan is shiranuhi or shiranui. The decopan fruit is very large and has a sweet taste.

Joshta was obtained by crossing between blackcurrant and gooseberry. The size of the fruit is very large, but the taste is similar to currants. The fruit withstands frosts as well as black currants. The berry was bred in Germany and is completely resistant to fungi and bacteria that damage currants. Ripe berries are dark blue in color.

The blood lime is a hybrid of the red finger lime and the Ellendale tangerine. The peel, pulp and juice has a blood-red color. They taste very sour. Fruits are 20-30 mm wide.

limequat

Limequat is a citrus fruit that is cross between lime and kumquat. The limequat is a small tree that has dense foliage and produces a lot of fruit when young. It is used in many recipes where limes and lemons are present. The fruit of the limequat is a small green-yellow color. Has no seeds. The fruit contains few calories.

Varieties of limequat:

Eustis: lime crossed with round kumquat. Lakeland: lime crossed with round kumquat, with other hybrid seeds from parents like Eustice. Tavares: a lime crossed with an oval kumquat where the fruit is much larger and more elongated.

Lemato is a hybrid variant of lemon and tomato. Although the basil gene was added to the tomato, because of which the tomato smells like lemon. Israeli researchers have developed a genetically modified tomato that tastes like lemon and rose. About 82 people tasted the experimental fruit with the unmodified fruit. They described this fruit as a scent of rose, geranium and lemon green.

Respondents' opinions:

• 49 people preferred genetically modified tomatoes
• Real tomatoes were preferred by 29 people
• 4 people did not lean towards any kind of tomato.

Genetically modified tomatoes only come in light red because they contain half as much lycopene as regular tomatoes. They have a long shelf life and require less pesticides to grow.

Limandarin, rangpur

Rangpur is a hybrid variety between mandarin and lemon. Rangpur is also known as Lemandarin. The fruit have a sour taste. The name "rangpur" originated from the Bengali language. Since this fruit is grown in Rangpur in Bangladesh, the city is famous for its citrus fruits. Rangpur can also be used to replace limes. The fruit can be either small or medium in size. Rangpur is used as an ornamental or houseplant in the US. But it is mainly used as a rootstock in other countries.

Loganberry is a hybrid of American blackberry and European red raspberry. The berries are large and elongated. Ripe berries become dark and bright red. They are harvested from July to September. The berries are juicy and have a sharp sour taste. The fruits always ripen very early.

Marionberry crossed between Chehalem and Olallieberries. These years are the most common varieties of blackberries. The berries are also shiny, like other varieties of blackberries. The berries are medium in size, sweet, juicy and have a tart flavor.

Nectacotum is a hybrid variety of apricot, plum and nectarine. They are reddish green in color with light pink flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste. It will be good to add it to salads.

The fruit is round and slightly pear-shaped, about the size of a grapefruit. The rind is brilliant yellow and easy to peel. The inner part is divided mainly into 9-13 segments, not bitter, the flesh is yellow-orange. The walls are tender with a mild taste of orange and grapefruit and slightly sour.

Ortanic is a hybrid cross between an orange and a tangerine. The fruit was discovered in Jamaica. It has a strong citrus aroma and a sharp, hazy sweet taste. Ortanic is pale in color and seedless. It has juicy flesh and grows in the Mediterranean region.

Olallieberry is a cross between loganberry and youngberry, and looks like a classic blackberry. Has a sweet aroma. Used to make jams and wine. The berries are large, shiny and juicy. This berry was bred in 1950. The berries are very specific and are available mainly in California.

Pineberry

Pineberry turned out, thanks to the crossing of Chilean strawberries and Virginia strawberries. The fruit is very fragrant with a pineapple flavor. When the fruits ripen, they turn white with red seeds. Pinebury is grown very little, mainly in Europe and Belize.

Plumkot turned out, thanks to the crossing between plum and apricot. The fruits are yellow with a red tint, the flesh is red or dark purple, depending on the variety. It has very smooth skin, like a plum. Plumcot grows well where plum or apricot grows.

The pluot fruit is an individual cross between a plum and an apricot. This is a new fruit that was developed by Floyd Zyger in 1990. Ploot comes in different colors from pink to red. Pluot is much sweeter than his parents (plum and apricot). Pluot is very juicy and sweet, which is why children love it so much. There are about 25 varieties. The fruit is very low in fat and sodium.

Sweety, oroblanco

Sweetie is a hybrid between a pomelo and a white grapefruit. The fruit is sweet, large in size with few seeds. Sweetie tastes like the smell of his flowers. Oroblanca trees do not grow in cold conditions. It has a tendency to adapt to its environment very quickly and grow well. The fruit has a thick skin. Mostly imported from Israel.

Citrofortunella mitis

Citrofortunella mitis is a hybrid of the mandarin and the kumquat. The fruits are acidic and are commonly used in cooking.

Taybury is one of the many hybrid berries crossed with blackberries and raspberries. It was bred in Scotland and named after the Scottish River Tay. Taybury often grows in home gardens. Has a strong tart aroma.

Tangor turned out, thanks to the crossing of mandarin and orange.

Tangelo is a cross between a pomelo tangerine and a grapefruit. The fruits of tangelo and mandarin are similar. Tangelo begins to ripen from late autumn to late winter. The size of the fruit usually ranges from a standard orange to the size of a grapefruit. Tangela flesh is colorful and very juicy. You can squeeze juice out of it.

Tomtato is a hybrid of potato and tomato. Tomtato grows both tomatoes and potatoes. From tomtato seeds, either potatoes or tomatoes appear; they do not retain maternal characteristics.

This fruit, which is common during the holiday months, is a type of mandarin. They ripen earlier than other citrus fruits and can also be grown at home in warm regions. Fairchild tangerine was obtained by crossing a clementine with an Orlando tangelo. The fruits are delicious and easy to peel.

Yuzu turned out, thanks to the crossing of mandarin with papeda (Ichansky lemon). This fruit is very similar to a grapefruit with uneven skin. The diameter of the fruit is from 5.5 cm to 7.5 cm. This fruit is mainly grown in China, Korea and Japan. The fruits are very fragrant and may be yellow or green in color depending on ripeness. Forward

Hybrid (from lat. hybrid) - the creation of a new individual by crossing living organisms of various breeds, species, varieties. The hybridization process is applied mainly to living things (animals, plants).

The article will focus on the creation of such organisms in the animal world. These are the most difficult experiments. Also, the reader will be able to see animal hybrids, photos of which are placed in sections.

Story

The first attempts to create hybrids were carried out as early as the 17th century by the German botanist Camerarius. And in 1717, the English gardener Thomas Freidchild presented the scientific community with a successful result of hybridization - a new type of carnation.

In the animal kingdom, things were much more complicated. In the world of wildlife, it is extremely rare to find animal hybrids. Therefore, the crossing of representatives of different species occurred artificially - in laboratory conditions or in reserves.

The very first hybrid with a thousand-year history is, of course, a mule - a mixture of a donkey and a horse.

Since the middle of the 19th century, with the advent of nature reserves and zoos (in the form in which we are accustomed to seeing them in modern times), they began to cross bears - brown and white, as well as a zebra with a horse.

Since the middle of the 20th century, scientists around the world have been conducting experiments on crossing different animal species. All of them have different goals: someone breeds hybrids to improve productivity, someone - for exotics, and someone - to obtain effective drugs.

Animal hybrids: what are they?

There are more than 80 interspecific hybrids all over the world, but let's focus on the brightest and most famous representatives.

Peasley

Peasley (aknuk) - a cross between a polar bear and a grizzly bear. The first mention of an unusual animal dates back to 1864. Then in the northwestern part of North America, near Lake Rendezvous, a bear with an unusual dull white color and a golden brown muzzle was shot.

After 10 years, the first offspring from polar and brown bears were obtained in the German zoo (Halle). Babies were born white, but over time, the color changed to bluish-brown or golden-brown. Peasley showed good results in terms of reproduction: hybrid animals successfully produced offspring. Interbreeding took place both between Aknuk and with representatives of a pure line.

Often, interspecific hybrids of animals are not reproductive, but pizzles are an exception, since both bears can be attributed to the same species by biological characteristics, but, based on a number of morphological features, the bears were identified by scientists as separate species.

Even before 2006, there was an opinion that animal hybrids did not occur in the natural environment. This myth was dispelled on April 16, 2006 by American hunter Jim Martell, who shot a Peaseley on Banky Island (Canadian Arctic), which became indisputable evidence of the appearance of hybrids in the wild.

Liger and tiger

The first is a hybrid of a tigress and a lion, and the second is the offspring of a lioness and a tiger. These animal hybrids are born exclusively in artificial conditions, the reason for this is banal - different habitats (Africa and Eurasia) do not allow them to meet, this is possible only in menageries.

Outwardly, ligers look like a cave lion, which became extinct during the Pleistocene period. To date, this hybrid is considered the largest among the cats. This phenomenon is explained by growth genes: in tigers they are not as active as in lions. For the same reason, the tigrolev is smaller than the tiger.

In the amusement park "Jungle Island" (Miami, USA) contains a male liger named Hercules weighing 418 kg. For comparison: the average weight of the Amur tiger varies from 260 to 340 kg, and the African lion - from 170 to 240 kg. So, Hercules absorbs up to 45 kg of food in one approach, and develops a speed of 80 km / h in 10 seconds.

The remarkable thing about ligers is that these cats love to splash in the water. Another feature: ligers are one of the few hybrids that are able to reproduce offspring. So, in the Novosibirsk Zoo on August 16, 2012, the lion Samson and the ligress Zita became parents, giving birth to the liligric Kiara.

There are just over 20 ligers in the world today.

Bester

Bester is a hybrid of two representatives of the sturgeon family - a female beluga and a male sterlet. Bester owes its appearance to the Russian scientist-biologist - Professor N. I. Nikolyukin. Since 1948, he has come to grips with the problem of sturgeon hybridization. In 1952, the wife of Nikolai Ivanovich, who, together with her husband, worked on the creation of fish hybrids, tried to artificially obtain offspring of sterlet and beluga. The Nekolyukins did not expect that this unscheduled experiment would mark the beginning of a new direction in fish farming.

During the experiments, the professor crossed different types of sturgeons, but the turn did not reach the beluga and sterlet. Perhaps he considered such an experiment initially a failure, since these sturgeons are different in size and weight (beluga - up to a ton, and sterlet - no more than 15 kg), live and spawn in different places, and their hybrids cannot produce offspring. But everything happened exactly the opposite.

Bester took fast growth from beluga, and fast puberty from sterlet, which is an important factor for industrial fish. Also, the hybrid turned out incredibly tender meat and delicious caviar.

Now in Russia besters are bred on an industrial scale.

Kama (camel)

It is a hybrid between a male Bactrian and a female llama. The first kama saw the light in 1998 at the Animal Reproduction Center in Dubai. The individual was created artificially, the main purpose of such crossing was to get an animal with the endurance of a camel and the quality of llama wool. The experiment was a success. Kama turned out to weigh up to 60 kg, with wool at least 6 cm long, with the ability to carry loads up to 30 kg. The disadvantage of the camel is the inability to reproduce. Of course, in nature, such an option would be impossible, since llamas live in South America, and Bactrians live in Asia and Africa, and the former are significantly inferior in size to the latter. Despite these data, it turned out that the camel and the llama have the same number of chromosomes.

To date, six individuals of kam have been received in the UAE.

Kosatkodelfin (wolfin, kitofin)

Kosatkodelfin - a hybrid of killer whale (small black) and bottlenose dolphins. The first wolfin appeared in a water park in Tokyo, but died at the age of six months. The second orca dolphin hybrid appeared in Hawaii at the SeaLifePark Marine Park in 1986. The female wolffin, named Kekaimalu, began breeding at the age of five, which is quite early for killer whales and dolphins. The first experience of motherhood was somewhat unsuccessful: the mother refused to feed the baby, so she was artificially fed, which made it possible to grow an absolutely tame individual, but her life was short and ended at the age of 9 years. Kekaimalu experienced the happiness of motherhood three times, but the last one turned out to be the most successful: in 2004, the female Kavili Kai was born from a male bottlenose dolphin. The baby turned out to be very playful, and a month after birth she reached the size of her father.

An interesting fact was discovered by scientists: the wolffin has 66 teeth, the bottlenose dolphin has 88, and the killer whale has 44.

Now in the world there are two individuals of the orca dolphin, which are kept in Hawaii. Sometimes information appears that wolffins have been seen in the wild, but scientists have not yet been able to confirm this data.

Other hybrids

Let's see what are the most common animal hybrids. The examples are quite interesting. These are the following hybrids:

• domestic horse and zebra - zebroid;
• donkey and zebra - zebrul;
• bison and bison - bison;
• sable and marten - kidas;
• cichlids - red parrot;
• female African lion and leopard - levopard;
• leopard and lioness - leopon;
• capercaillie and black grouse - mezhnyak;
• dromedary and bactrian - nar;
• lioness and tiger - tigon;
• hare hare and white hare - cuff;
• cows and yaks - hainak (dzo);
• ferret and mink - honorik;
• leopard and jaguar - jagopard.

But these were obtained in the course of many experiments

• horse and donkey - mule;
• donkeys and stallion - hinny;
• ram and goat;
• diamond and golden pheasants - a hybrid pheasant;
• domestic and American bison cows - bifalo;
• a hybrid obtained by crossing musky drakes with Beijing white, Rouen, Orgpington, White Allier ducks - Mullard;
• domestic pigs with wild boar - a pig from the Iron Age.

You can talk about animal hybrids for a very long time, given their number and diversity. But are there other options, such as animal-plant hybrids?

To date, there is only one known hybrid - the sea snail (Elysia chlorotica), which lives on the coast of North America from the Atlantic Ocean. These animals feed on solar energy: eating plants, they photosynthesize. The snail has been dubbed the gelatin green plant. This hybrid receives chloroplasts, which are then stored in intestinal cells. An interesting fact: a sea snail with a lifespan of no more than one year can eat only the first two weeks from the moment of birth, after which food consumption becomes a non-priority.

Plant-animal hybrids have become commonplace, but how would the public react to a human-animal hybrid? And do they exist?

There are many rumors about the existence of such hybrids, but, unfortunately, there are very few facts. However, studying the mythology of different nations, scientists point to the presence of beastmen in almost all epics. Scientists from Australia and the USA have studied more than 5,000 rock paintings and texts. Most often there are descriptions of people whose bodies (as a rule, the lower part) consist of the body of a horse, goat, ram, dog. The names of such beastmen are well known to us from mythology. These are centaurs, minotaurs, satyrs and others.

Scientists explained the existence of such "people" by the fact that in ancient times bestiality was common, especially in the army, because herds of sheep and goats were always kept nearby. Animals were for the military not only potential food, but also objects of satisfaction of sexual needs. Many scientists of the Middle Ages mention the birth of children from animals in women and vice versa. These facts remain a big question, since from a biological point of view this is impossible due to a different set of chromosomes.

Recently, more and more new, ambiguous facts have been revealed to the public. One of these facts is the experiment on the fertilization of a woman with the sperm of a chimpanzee in fascist Germany and the USSR. According to some reports, the Soviet Union, after a series of attempts, received a positive result. The further fate of the experiment has not yet been revealed.

A hybrid of a human and an animal is nonsense for modern society, but information about such experiments continues to appear in the media. Is this true or fiction? We will judge in 10-20 years. Time will tell how far science will go, but for now we will eat hybrid fruits and vegetables, enjoy the beauty of hybrid plants and animals and hope that humanity will not return to the Stone Age.

They are the final result of crossing different types of flora. In the process of crossing animal species proceeds without human intervention, while plants are hybridized by scientists who want to achieve a certain goal. So, thanks to hybrid varieties, vegetables give increased and are able to quickly adapt to different climatic conditions. In addition, hybrid plants are more resistant to changes in weather conditions.

Today, hybrid products are grown almost everywhere, and most varieties of peppers, cucumbers and tomatoes are grown by hybridization.

However, this method has its own. Hybrid plants are either sterile, or their seeds will not produce the same improved fruits, which is directly related to the splitting of characters. However, anyone can independently breed a hybrid plant that can be useful on the farm and, perhaps, become a new sensational agricultural species.

How to breed a hybrid

Cross-pollination is well tolerated by zucchini, pumpkin and squash. Therefore, to obtain a new hybrid variety, several different types of any of these vegetables should be planted in close proximity to each other. Insects will pollinate them, transferring the pollen from one plant to another - and the result will most likely be a patisson or squash never seen before.

Hybrid plants do not always take the best qualities from their "parents" - they often produce a small and nondescript crop in all respects.

You can also breed a hybrid variety of strawberries, but here you will already need to seriously put your hands on it. It is necessary to pluck fully mature inflorescences of hybridizing plants, collect pollen from them with a soft brush and carefully place it on the stigmas of experimental plants. Each pollinated flower must be placed in a transparent individual bag and tied with a string.

To get a strawberry hybrid, you need to wait until the berries are fully ripe, pick them and dry them to get seeds. For sowing, only small strawberry seeds are taken, which usually crunch on the teeth and get stuck in them when eating strawberries or strawberry jam. They are sown as seedlings to obtain a hybrid variety of this delicious wild berry.

Crossing types

In breeding practice, two types of crossing are used:

–simple (once)- two varieties are crossed with each other (A X B)

Variations:

Simple steam rooms

Reciprocal

Multiple

Topcrosses

Diallelic

–complex (multiple)- three grades and more [(A x B) x C] x D

Variations:

Returnable (bkcrosses)

Convergent

Stepped

Interhybrid

Simple crosses

Selection is carried out directly in the hybrid progeny.

On the basis of simple pair crossings, work with hybrid material is reduced to the selection of hybrid plants in splitting generations and the evaluation of their progeny.

This type of crossing is of great importance in intervarietal hybridization than in interspecific hybridization, when a single crossing is not enough to obtain the necessary combination of traits in a hybrid.

Reciprocal crosses

Reciprocal (forward and back crossing, the parental form is reversed) -

each of the two parental components is used in one case as the maternal form, and in the second case as the paternal form.

This type of crossing is especially important for distant hybridization, when in direct and reverse combinations the results can be different both in terms of seed set and hybrid quality.

It is required to check the presence of genetic material in the cytoplasm of parental forms. Nuclear material is transferred equally during direct and reverse crossing; the cytoplasm is transmitted to hybrids only through the maternal line. In reciprocal crossings, in some cases, the influence of the cytoplasm of the maternal form may be significant, in others it may not appear at all.

11. Complex stepped and interhybrid crosses.

Stepped crosses

In step hybridization, the resulting hybrid plants are re-crossed with the third variety, and if necessary, then the fourth variety or species is also involved in the crossing, etc. Thus, several parental forms are involved in these crosses, which are sequentially (stepwise) included in hybridization .

In step crosses, a hybrid material is created, including the germ plasm of several varieties or even plant species. Selecting, for example, a sequence of stepwise hybridization of a variety, one of which is cross-ripening, the second is high-yielding, and the third is disease-resistant, one can expect to get a hybrid that combines all three of these properties.

Interhybrid crosses

To create source material with a wide range of genetic variability, it is advisable to use the method of complex or interhybrid crossing.

Its essence lies in the fact that a population is created by crossing a large group of parental forms, and, as a rule, F1 individuals are immediately crossed.

For example, a crossing scheme of 16 parent varieties would look like this:

1st year: (1x2); (3x4); (5x6); (7x8); (9x10); (11x12); (13x14); (15x16).

2nd year: (1x2)x(3x4); (5x6)x(7x8); (9x10)x(11x12); (13x14) x (15x16).

Year 3: [(1x2)x(3x4)]x[(5x6)x(7x8)]; [(9x10)x(11x12)]x[(13x14)x(15x16)].

Year 4: ([(1x2)x(3x4)]x[(5x6)x(7x8)])x([(9x10)x(11x12)]x[(13x14)x(15x16)]).

With this method, over four generations of crossing, a prerequisite is created for the formation of a recombined genotype, the genes of which can come from all 16 varieties or lines.

Option 1 - complex step crossing

A x B => F 1 (reseeding) => F 2 - select noticeable signs A and B, cross with variety C => F 1 (reseeding) => F 2 - select noticeable signs A, B, C, cross with D => F 1 (reseeding) => F 2 we select ABSD (1 out of 256). It took 6 years.

Option 2 - interhybrid:

We sow A x B and C x D in parallel => we cross them F 1 with each other => F 1 we re-seed => F 2 we select ABSD (1 out of 4096 is a huge job). 4 years spent.

Almost always use the first option.