The battle, which took place on April 5, 1242 on the ice of Lake Peipus near the island of Voroniy Kamen, went down in history as one of the most important in the history of the state, as a battle that liberated the lands of Rus' from any claims of the Order of the Livonian Knights. Although the course of the battle is known, many controversial issues remain. Thus, there is no exact information about the number of soldiers who took part in the Battle of Lake Peipsi. Neither in the chronicles that have reached us, nor in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” are these data given. Presumably, from the Novgorodians, from 12 thousand to 15 thousand soldiers took part in the battle. The number of the enemy ranged from 10 thousand to 12 thousand. At the same time, there were few knights among the German soldiers, the bulk of the army were militias, litas and Estonians.

Alexander's choice of the battle site was dictated by both tactical and strategic calculations. The position occupied by the prince's troops made it possible to block all approaches to Novgorod for the attackers. The prince probably also remembered that winter conditions provide certain advantages in confrontations with heavy knights. Let's look at how the Battle of the Ice took place (briefly).

If the battle formation of the crusaders is well known to historians and is called a wedge, or, according to the chronicles, a “great pig” (heavy knights are on the flanks, and more lightly armed warriors are inside the wedge), then there is no exact information about the construction and location of the Novgorod army. It is quite possible that this was a traditional “regimental row”. The knights, who had no information about the number and location of Nevsky’s troops, decided to advance on open ice.

Although the chronicles do not provide a detailed description of the battle on Lake Peipsi, it is quite possible to reconstruct the scheme of the Battle of the Ice. The wedge of knights crashed into the center of the Nevsky guard regiment and broke through its defenses, rushing further. Perhaps this “success” was foreseen in advance by Prince Alexander, since the attackers then encountered a lot of insurmountable obstacles. The knight's wedge, squeezed in pincers, lost its orderly ranks and maneuverability, which turned out to be a serious negative factor for the attackers. The attack of the ambush regiment, which had not participated in the battle until that moment, finally tipped the scales in favor of the Novgorodians. The knights dismounted from their horses in their heavy armor on the ice and became practically helpless. Only part of the attackers managed to escape, whom the Russian warriors pursued, according to the chronicler, “to the Falcon Coast.”

After the victory of the Russian prince in the Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi, the Livonian Order was forced to make peace, completely renouncing its claims to the lands of Rus'. According to the agreement, both sides returned the soldiers captured during the battle.

It is worth noting that on the ice of Lake Peipsi, for the first time in the history of wars, a foot army defeated heavy cavalry, which was a formidable force in the Middle Ages. Alexander Yaroslavich, who brilliantly won the Battle of the Ice, made maximum use of the surprise factor and took into account the terrain.

The military-political significance of Alexander’s victory is difficult to overestimate. The prince not only defended the opportunity for the Novgorodians to conduct further trade with European countries and reach the Baltic, but also defended the north-west of Rus', because in the event of the defeat of Novgorod, the threat of the Order capturing the north-west of Rus' would become quite real. In addition, the prince delayed the German onslaught on Eastern European territories. April 5, 1242 is one of the most important dates in the history of Rus'.

Sources brought to us very scanty information about the Battle of the Ice. This contributed to the fact that the battle gradually became overgrown with a large number of myths and contradictory facts.

Mongols again

It is not entirely correct to call the Battle of Lake Peipus a victory of Russian squads over German knighthood, since the enemy, according to modern historians, was a coalition force that, in addition to the Germans, included Danish knights, Swedish mercenaries and a militia consisting of Estonians (Chud).

It is quite possible that the troops led by Alexander Nevsky were not exclusively Russian. The Polish historian of German origin, Reinhold Heidenstein (1556-1620), wrote that Alexander Nevsky was pushed into battle by the Mongol Khan Batu (Batu) and sent his detachment to help him.
This version has the right to life. The middle of the 13th century was marked by a confrontation between the Horde and Western European troops. Thus, in 1241, Batu’s troops defeated the Teutonic knights in the Battle of Legnica, and in 1269, Mongol troops helped the Novgorodians defend the city walls from the invasion of the crusaders.

Who went underwater?

In Russian historiography, one of the factors that contributed to the victory of Russian troops over the Teutonic and Livonian knights was the fragile spring ice and the bulky armor of the crusaders, which led to the massive flooding of the enemy. However, if you believe the historian Nikolai Karamzin, the winter that year was long and the spring ice remained strong.
However, it is difficult to determine how much ice could withstand a large number of warriors dressed in armor. Researcher Nikolai Chebotarev notes: “it is impossible to say who was heavier or lighter armed at the Battle of the Ice, because there was no uniform as such.”
Heavy plate armor appeared only in the 14th-15th centuries, and in the 13th century the main type of armor was chain mail, over which a leather shirt with steel plates could be worn. Based on this fact, historians suggest that the weight of the equipment of the Russian and order warriors was approximately the same and reached 20 kilograms. If we assume that the ice could not support the weight of a warrior in full equipment, then there should have been sunken ones on both sides.
It is interesting that in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle and in the original edition of the Novgorod Chronicle there is no information that the knights fell through the ice - they were added only a century after the battle.
On Voronii Island, near which Cape Sigovets is located, the ice is quite weak due to the characteristics of the current. This gave rise to some researchers to suggest that the knights could fall through the ice precisely there when they crossed a dangerous area during their retreat.

Where was the massacre?

Researchers to this day cannot pinpoint the exact location where the Battle of the Ice took place. Novgorod sources, as well as historian Nikolai Kostomarov, say that the battle took place near the Raven Stone. But the stone itself was never found. According to some, it was high sandstone, washed away over time by the current, others claim that the stone is Crow Island.
Some researchers are inclined to believe that the massacre is not at all connected with the lake, since the accumulation of a large number of heavily armed warriors and cavalry would make it impossible to conduct a battle on the thin April ice.
In particular, these conclusions are based on the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, which reports that “on both sides the dead fell on the grass.” This fact is supported by modern research using the latest equipment of the bottom of Lake Peipsi, during which no weapons or armor of the 13th century were found. Excavations also failed on the shore. However, this is not difficult to explain: armor and weapons were very valuable booty, and even damaged they could be quickly carried away.
However, back in Soviet times, an expedition group from the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences, led by Georgy Karaev, established the supposed location of the battle. According to researchers, this was a section of Teploe Lake, located 400 meters west of Cape Sigovets.

Number of parties

Soviet historians, determining the number of forces clashing on Lake Peipsi, state that Alexander Nevsky’s troops numbered approximately 15-17 thousand people, and the number of German knights reached 10-12 thousand.
Modern researchers consider such figures to be clearly overestimated. In their opinion, the order could produce no more than 150 knights, who were joined by about 1.5 thousand knechts (soldiers) and 2 thousand militia. They were opposed by squads from Novgorod and Vladimir in the amount of 4-5 thousand soldiers.
The true balance of forces is quite difficult to determine, since the number of German knights is not indicated in the chronicles. But they can be counted by the number of castles in the Baltic states, which, according to historians, in the middle of the 13th century there were no more than 90.
Each castle was owned by one knight, who could take from 20 to 100 people from mercenaries and servants on a campaign. In this case, the maximum number of soldiers, excluding the militia, could not exceed 9 thousand people. But, most likely, the real numbers are much more modest, since some of the knights died in the Battle of Legnica the year before.
Modern historians can say only one thing with confidence: none of the opposing sides had significant superiority. Perhaps Lev Gumilyov was right when he assumed that the Russians and Teutons collected 4 thousand soldiers each.

The borders of modern Russia are historically connected with the borders of the Russian Empire, which were influenced by certain events. And therefore, the significance of the Battle of the Ice is very great: thanks to it, the Teutonic Order forever abandoned serious claims to Russian lands. Although this did not protect our ancestors from the Golden Horde, it helped to defend, at least, the western borders, and showed people in difficult times that they were capable of winning victories.

However, before the Battle of the Ice occurred, it was preceded by other events that largely predetermined it. In particular, the Battle of the Neva, which clearly demonstrated the leadership talent of the then young Prince Alexander. Therefore, it’s worth starting with it.

The Battle of the Neva itself is directly determined by the claims of both the Swedes and Novgorodians to the Karelian Isthmus and to the Finnish tribes. What was connected with the influence and with the advance of the crusaders to the west. Here historians differ in their assessments of what happened. Some believe that Alexander Nevsky stopped the expansion with his actions. Others disagree, believing that the significance of his victories was greatly exaggerated and that the crusaders actually had no real intention of advancing in earnest. So the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice still cause a lot of controversy. But it is worth returning to the first event.

So, the Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240. It should be noted that the young Prince Alexander at that time was a very inexperienced commander; he participated in battles only with his father, Yaroslav. And this was, in fact, his first serious military test. Success was largely determined by the suddenness of the appearance of the prince along with his retinue. The Swedes, who landed at the mouth of the Neva, did not expect serious resistance. In addition, in the summer they experienced serious thirst, as a result, as many historians noted, they found themselves either drunk or hungover. A camp set up near the river meant the presence of tents, which turned out to be very easy to cut down, which is what the youth Savva did.

The timely warning of the Izhora elder Pelgusius, who monitored these lands and sent messengers to Alexander, thus came as a complete surprise to the Swedes. As a result, the Battle of the Neva ended in a real defeat for them. According to some reports, the Swedes loaded almost 3 ships with the bodies of the dead, while the Novgorodians killed about 20 people. It is worth noting that the battle began during the day and lasted until the evening; at night hostilities ceased, and in the morning the Swedes began to flee. No one pursued them: Alexander Nevsky did not see the need for this, in addition, he was afraid of increasing losses. Please note that he received his nickname precisely after this victory.

What happened between the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice?

After the battle on the Neva River took place, the Swedes abandoned their claims. But this did not mean that the crusaders stopped thinking about conquering Rus'. Do not forget in which year the described event took place: our ancestors already had problems with the Golden Horde. Which, together with feudal fragmentation, significantly weakened the Slavs. Understanding the date is so important here because it allows you to relate some events to others.

Therefore, the Teutonic Order was not impressed by the defeat of the Swedes. The Danes and Germans decisively moved forward, captured Pskov, Izborsk, founded Koporye, where they decided to strengthen themselves, making it their fortpost. Even the summary of the Laurentian Chronicle, which tells about those events, makes it clear that the successes of the Order were significant.

At the same time, the boyars, who had considerable power in Novgorod, became alarmed about Alexander’s victory. They were afraid of his increasing power. As a result, the prince left Novgorod after a major quarrel with them. But already in 1242, the boyars called him back with his squad because of the Teutonic threat, especially since the enemy was approaching the Novgorodians closely.

How did the battle take place?

So, the famous battle on Lake Peipsi, the Battle of the Ice, took place in 1242 on April 5. Moreover, the battle was carefully prepared by the Russian prince. What makes it clear is the work of Konstantin Simonov dedicated to this event, which, although it cannot be called an impeccable historical source from the point of view of reliability, is quite well worked out.

In short, everything happened according to a certain pattern: the knights of the Order, in full heavy armor, acted as a typical wedge for themselves. Such a ramming attack was intended to demonstrate the full power of the enemy, sweep him away, sow panic and break resistance. Such tactics have repeatedly proven successful in the past. But Alexander Nevsky really prepared the Battle of the Ice in 1242 well. He studied the enemy’s weak points, so the archers were first waiting for the German “pig”; their main task was simply to lure out the knights. Which then came across heavily armed infantry with long pikes.

In fact, it was difficult to call what happened next anything other than a massacre. The knights could not stop, because otherwise the front ranks would be crushed by the back ones. It was not possible to break the wedge at all. Therefore, the horsemen could only move forward, hoping to break the infantry. But the central regiment was weak, but the strong ones were placed on the sides, contrary to the then established military tradition. In addition, another detachment was placed in an ambush. In addition, Alexander Nevsky perfectly studied the area where the Battle of the Ice took place, so his warriors were able to drive some of the knights to where the ice was very thin. As a result, many of them began to drown.

There is another important factor. He is also shown in “Alexander Nevsky,” a famous painting; maps and pictures also depict him. This is the stampede of the monster who was helping the Order when she realized that professional warriors were fighting against her. Speaking even briefly about the Battle of the Ice, one cannot help but note the excellent knowledge of the knights’ weapons and weak points. So, they were frankly helpless when they were pulled off their horses. And that is why the prince armed many of his soldiers with special hooks, which made it possible to throw the crusaders to the ground. At the same time, the battle that took place turned out to be very cruel to the horses. To deprive the horsemen of this advantage, many injured and killed the animals.

But what were the results of the Battle of the Ice for both sides? Alexander Nevsky managed to repel claims to Rus' from the west and strengthen the borders for centuries to come. Which was of particular importance given how much the Slavs suffered from invasions from the east. In addition, the first battle in history took place where infantrymen defeated heavily armed horsemen in full armor in battle, demonstrating to the whole world that this was quite possible. And although the Battle of the Ice is not on a very large scale, from this point of view Alexander Nevsky demonstrated good talent as a commander. As a prince, he acquired a certain weight, they began to reckon with him.

As for the Order itself, it cannot be said that the defeat in question was critical. But 400 knights died on Lake Peipus, and about 50 were captured. So for its age, the Battle of the Ice still caused quite serious damage to the German and Danish knighthood. And for that year, this was not the only problem of the Order, which also faced the Galicia-Volyn and Lithuanian principalities.

Reasons for winning the battle

Alexander Nevsky won a convincing victory in the Battle of the Ice. Moreover, he forced the Teutonic Order to sign a peace treaty on his own terms. In this agreement, he forever renounced any claims to Russian lands. Since we were talking about spiritual brotherhood, which was also subordinate to the Pope, the Order could not break such an agreement without problems for itself. That is, even speaking briefly about the results of the Battle of the Ice, including diplomatic ones, one cannot fail to note that they were impressive. But let's return to the analysis of the battle.

Reasons for victory:

1. Well chosen place. Alexander's soldiers were lighter armed. Therefore, thin ice did not pose such a danger for them as for knights clad in full armor, many of whom simply drowned. In addition, the Novgorodians knew these places better.
2. Successful tactics. Alexander Nevsky was in complete control of the situation. He not only correctly used the advantages of the place, but also studied the weak points in the usual style of fighting, which the Teutonic knights themselves repeatedly demonstrated, starting from the classic “pig” and ending with their dependence on horses and heavy weapons.
3. Underestimation of the Russians by the enemy. The Teutonic Order was accustomed to success. By this time, Pskov and other lands had already been captured, and the knights did not encounter any serious resistance. The largest of the conquered cities was taken thanks to betrayal.

The battle in question was of great cultural significance. In addition to Simonov's story, several films were made based on it, including documentaries. This event was covered in many books, both fiction and biographical, dedicated to the personality of Alexander Nevsky. Many consider it extremely important that the victory occurred during the onset of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

History of naval art

After the defeat of the Swedes Alexander Nevskiy quarreled with the Novgorod boyars, who were afraid of strengthening the princely power, and was forced to leave Novgorod for his own inheritance - Pereyaslavl Zalessky . They took advantage of his departure German knights . In the autumn of 1240 they invaded the Russian land and captured Izborsk fortress and Koporye . Came out against the Germans Pskov voivode Gavrila Borislavich with his squad and the Pskov militia. However, the Pskovites were defeated by superior enemy forces. The governor and many warriors fell in the battle. The Russians retreated to Pskov. During the attack on Pskov, the knights mercilessly robbed and killed the Russian population, burned villages and churches. For a whole week the Germans unsuccessfully besieged Pskov. And only after a group of traitor boyars led by Tverdila entered into an agreement with the Germans and opened the city gates for them, Pskov was taken.

At this difficult time for the entire Russian land, at the request of the people, the boyars were forced to again call Alexander Nevsky to Novgorod.

Alexander Yaroslavich returned to Novgorod. On his behalf, the vigilantes called: “Get together, everyone from the smallest to the greatest: whoever has a horse is on the horse, and whoever doesn’t have a knight, let him go on the rook.” In a short time, he created a strong army of Novgorodians, Ladoga residents, Izhorians and Karelians.

Having gathered an army, Alexander Nevsky with a sudden blow knocked the Germans out of Koporye - an important strategic point from where they sent their troops deep into the Novgorod possessions. Anticipating fierce enemy resistance, Alexander Nevsky turned to his father, the Grand Duke, for help, asking him to send Vladimir-Suzdal regiments. Help was provided to him: Nevsky’s brother Andrei Yaroslavich brought him to Novgorod "lower" shelves . Having united with these regiments, Alexander Nevsky went to Pskov, surrounded and took it by storm. The capture of such a fortress as Pskov in such a short time testified to the high level of Russian military art and the presence of advanced siege and military equipment among our ancestors. The traitorous boyars were executed, and the captured knights were sent to Novgorod.

Having strengthened the borders of the liberated Novgorod land, Alexander Nevskiy led his army to the land of the Estonians , where the eye forces of the German knights were located. Faced with the threat of mortal danger, the knights increased their armed forces, headed by himself master of the order .

In the second half of March 1242 advance detachment of Russians under the command of Domash Tverdislavovich scouted the main forces of the Germans, but, forced to engage them in battle, was defeated by a numerically superior enemy and retreated to his main forces. Based on intelligence reports, Alexander Nevskiy decided to give battle to the enemy on the ice of Lake Peipsi. For this purpose, he transferred his troops to the eastern shore of this lake and stationed them in the Uzmen area, at the Crow Stone.

Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky knew well the strengths and weaknesses of his opponent. He chose a convenient position for battle on the ice of Lake Peipsi.

The spring ice was strong enough to withstand Russian soldiers armed with spears, swords, axes and axes, but the ice, as it soon became clear, could not withstand the knightly cavalry with riders clad in armor.

The strength of the knights lay not only in their excellent weapons, but also in their combat formation. The battle formation of the German knights was shaped like a wedge, or, as the Russian chronicle calls it, a “pig.”

According to historians, "pig" had the following appearance: from three to five mounted knights lined up in front; behind them, in the second rank, were already five to seven knights; subsequent rows increased by two or three people. The total number of rows that made up the “pig” could reach up to ten, and the number of knights - up to 150. The remaining knights were lined up in a column behind the “pig”.

This formation was repeatedly successfully used by knights to break through the enemy’s center and encircle his flanks.

Together with the knights, the infantry also acted, which consisted of squires, servants and partly from the population of the conquered countries. The infantry came into action when the “pig” broke the formation of the enemy’s central regiment and reached its flanks. But the infantry was always followed by a line of knights, for the crusaders did not place much hope in it.

Contrary to the usual formation of the battle formation of Russian troops, when in the center they placed big regiment , and on the flanks are weaker right and left hand shelves , Alexander Nevskiy , taking into account the enemy’s tactics, deliberately weakened its center, concentrating the main forces of the Russian army on the flanks. Was pushed forward a great distance insignificant vanguard , which, retreating, was supposed to lure the Germans on the ice of Lake Peipsi . Alexander Nevsky placed the selected part of his squad behind the Crow Stone. This detachment was supposed to hit the enemy in the rear.

On the morning of April 5, 1242, the bulk of the German troops moved towards the Russians, who were standing in battle formation at the Raven Stone. As one would expect, this time the Germans used their favorite battle formation - wedge formation. The vanguard of the Russians retreated, dragging the knights with them. The Germans, as usual, attacked the Russian center, which they easily managed to break through. But at this time the main Russian forces, concentrated on the flanks, suddenly attacked them. Russian soldiers advanced quickly and acted decisively. In a relatively short time, they managed to surround the German wedge and cause confusion in the ranks of the knights. The German cavalry, pinched by the Russians, began to retreat, crushing their infantry. The ice could not withstand the weight of the enemy knights, horses and infantry huddled together. Many knights fell through the ice and died, along with their horses. The strike of the warriors from behind the Crow Stone into the rear of the Germans completed their defeat. “There was an evil slaughter,” writes the chronicler of the battle with the German knights, “and the Russian soldiers flogged them, chasing them as if through the air, and they had nowhere to hide.” 500 knights were killed and 50 captured.

The Russian victory at Lake Peipus was of historical significance. She saved Rus' from German slavery. Karl Marx highly appreciated this victory of Alexander Nevsky. "Alexander Nevsky opposes the German knights, smashes them on the ice of Lake Peipus, so that the scoundrels (die Lumpacii) were finally driven back from the Russian border ".

conclusions

Alexander Nevsky is a great Russian commander. His military activities are inextricably linked with the heroic struggle of the Russian people for their national independence.

In the fight against the Swedes and Germans, he showed high examples of strategic and tactical art. His strategy was active; it fully met the interests of the people, who sought to protect themselves from foreign invaders.

If, as a strategist, Alexander Nevsky unmistakably determined the main direction of the attack, then as a tactician he was no less skillfully able to concentrate the main forces and means in the decisive sector of the battle. Alexander Nevsky fought according to a pre-thought-out and carefully prepared plan. His tactics were active, offensive in nature.

“Prince Alexander won everywhere, was invincible” , wrote a contemporary of the prince in "The Lives of Alexander Nevsky."

At the Battle of the Neva, the Russians launched a surprise attack on the Swedish troops, who were completely defeated despite their numerical superiority.

At the first stage of the fight against the Germans, Alexander Nevsky showed high military art, taking the fortress of Koporye and Pskov by storm.

Having liberated their cities, the Russians moved their actions to enemy territory. Then, having lured his main forces to a pre-selected position on Lake Peipsi, they delivered a decisive blow to the enemy in Battle on the Ice .

After the Battle of the Ice, the knights recognized that the Russian people could neither be conquered nor enslaved. The ice of Lake Peipsi put a limit on the Germans' advance to the east.

“Whoever comes to us with a sword,” said Alexander Nevsky, “will die from the sword. This is where the Russian land stands and will stand.”

Alexander Nevsky was not only a great commander, but also a major statesman. During the Tatar invasion, he managed to subordinate the interests of the most important state centers of northwestern Rus' to the common cause of saving the Russian people from German-Swedish aggression. At the same time, he upset the machinations of the Pope, who provoked the Russian people into an open armed uprising against the Tatars. Alexander Nevsky understood that a premature attack against the Tatars could break the resistance of the Russian people and would give the Germans and Swedes the opportunity to seize the northwestern part of the Russian land that had not been conquered by the Tatars.

***

After the defeat of the Swedes and Germans, Novgorod secured its possessions from invaders for a long time. The crushing blows of Alexander Nevsky were so strong that the enemies of Rus' could not recover from them for a long time. Only 44 years after the Battle of the Neva, the Swedes resumed their predatory campaigns against Novgorod. In 1248 they organized a campaign against the possessions of Novgorod with the aim of capturing Ladoga. But this campaign ended completely for themdestructionmom. The Novgorodians freely allowed the Swedes to enter the Neva, blocked them and then destroyed them.

In 1300, the Swedes, taking advantage of the difficult internal situation of Rus' (Tatar yoke) and the weakening of Novgorod itself due to the intensified struggle of boyar groups for power, decided to cut off Novgorod from the Baltic Sea. For this purpose, they sent their fleet of 111 ships to the Gulf of Finland and the Neva. Climbing up the Neva, the Swedes stopped at the mouth of the Okhta River, where, under the supervision of Italian engineers, they built the Landskrona fortress.

The Novgorodians, having learned about the arrival of the enemy fleet in the Neva, decided to destroy it with the help of burning ships sent downstream. But the Swedes, warned by their intelligence, managed to prevent this danger by driving piles above the parking lot of their fleet. Then the Novgorodians were forced to strengthen their ground army, which took Landskrona by storm and destroyed it (1301).

In order to prevent the enemy from penetrating the Neva in the future, the Novgorodians built the Oreshek fortress (now Petrokrepost) at its source on Orekhov Island in 1323.

Due to the increased resistance of the Novgorodians, the Swedes suffered constant failures in their expensive campaigns against Rus', so in 1323 they sent their representatives to the Novgorodians in Oreshek with peace proposals. The latter accepted the Swedes' offer, and peace was signed in the Oreshek fortress.

According to the Orekhov Peace Treaty, the Sestra River became the border of Novgorod's possessions on the Karelian Isthmus, and the Narova River on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland.

The peace treaty of 1323 remained in force until 1348, when the Swedish king Magnus decided to cut off Russian access to the Baltic Sea, seize their land, and convert and enslave them. In 1348, a large Swedish fleet under the command of the king himself entered the Gulf of Finland and, going up the Neva, took the Oreshek fortress.

To liberate Oreshek, the Novgorodians gathered a large militia and moved by water and land against the Swedes. The Swedish king, having learned about the movement of a large Russian army, left a strong garrison in Oreshka, and he and his retinue fled to Sweden. In 1349, the Novgorodians took the Oreshek fortress by storm.

After the liberation of Oreshek, the Novgorodians founded a new fortress, Kantsy, at the mouth of the Okhta River on the site of the former Swedish fortress of Landskrona.

Alexander Nevsky and Battle of the Ice

Alexander Nevsky: Brief biography

Prince of Novgorod and Kiev and Grand Duke of Vladimir, Alexander Nevskiy He is best known for stopping the advance of the Swedes and the knights of the Teutonic Order into Rus'. At the same time, instead of resisting the Mongols, he paid them tribute. This position was considered by many to be cowardice, but perhaps Alexander simply sensibly assessed his capabilities.

Son Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich, The Grand Duke of Vladimir and all-Russian leader, Alexander, was elected Prince of Novgorod in 1236 (a primarily military position). In 1239 he married Alexandra, daughter of the Prince of Polotsk.

Some time ago, the Novgorodians invaded Finnish territory, which was under the control of the Swedes. In response to this, and also wanting to block Russian access to the sea, in 1240 the Swedes invaded Rus'.

Alexander won a significant victory over the Swedes at the mouth of the Izhora River, on the banks of the Neva, as a result of which he received the honorary nickname Nevsky. However, a few months later, Alexander was expelled from Novgorod due to a conflict with the Novgorod boyars.

A little later, the Pope Gregory IX began to call on the Teutonic knights to “Christianize” the Baltic region, although the peoples living there were already Christians. In the face of this threat, Alexander was invited to return to Novgorod, and, after several skirmishes, in April 1242, he won a famous victory over the knights on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Thus, Alexander stopped the eastward advance of both the Swedes and the Germans.

But there was another serious problem in the east. Mongol troops conquered most of Russia, which was not politically unified at the time. Alexander's father agreed to serve the new Mongol rulers, but died in September 1246. As a result of this, the throne of the Grand Duke was free and Alexander and his younger brother Andrei went to Batu(Batu), Mongol Khan of the Golden Horde. Batu sent them to the great Kagan, who, perhaps out of spite to Batu, who preferred Alexander, violating Russian custom, appointed Andrei Grand Duke of Vladimir. Alexander became the Prince of Kyiv.

Andrei entered into a conspiracy with other Russian princes and western neighbors against the Mongol rulers and Alexander took the opportunity to denounce his brother to Sartak, the son of Batu. Sartak sent an army to overthrow Andrei and Alexander soon took his place as Grand Duke.

As Grand Duke, Alexander sought to restore the prosperity of Rus' by building fortifications, temples, and passing laws. He continued to control Novgorod with the help of his son Vasily. This violated the established traditions of government in Novgorod (veche and invitation to reign). In 1255, the residents of Novgorod expelled Vasily, but Alexander gathered an army and returned Vasily back to the throne.

In 1257, in connection with the upcoming census and taxation, an uprising broke out in Novgorod. Alexander helped force the city into submission, probably fearing that the Mongols would punish all of Rus' for Novgorod's actions. In 1262, uprisings began to occur against Muslim tribute collectors from the Golden Horde, but Alexander managed to avoid reprisals by going to Sarai, the Horde's capital on the Volga, and discussing the situation with the khan. He also achieved the release of Rus' from the obligation to supply soldiers for the Khan's army.

On the way home, Alexander Nevsky died in Gorodets. After his death, Rus' fell apart into warring principalities, but his son Daniil received the principality of Moscow, which ultimately led to the reunification of the northern Russian lands. In 1547, the Russian Orthodox Church canonized Alexander Nevsky.

Battle on the Ice

The Battle of the Ice (Lake Peipus) occurred on April 5, 1242, during the Northern Crusades (12-13 centuries).

Armies and Generals

Crusaders

• Herman of Dorpat
• 1,000 – 4,000 people

• Prince Alexander Nevsky
• Prince Andrei II Yaroslavich
• 5,000 – 6,000 people

Battle on the Ice - background

In the thirteenth century, the papacy attempted to force Orthodox Christians living in the Baltic region to accept papal sovereignty. Despite the fact that previous efforts were unsuccessful, in the 1230s a new attempt was made to create a church state in the Baltic states.

Preaching the Crusade in the late 1230s, William of Modena organized a Western coalition to invade Novgorod. This papal action against Rus' coincided with the desire of the Swedes and Danes to expand their territories to the east, so both states began to supply troops for the campaign, as did the knights of the Teutonic Order.

The trading center of the region, Novgorod, like most of Rus', was invaded by the Mongols in the recent past (the Novgorod lands were only partially devastated, and the Mongols did not attack Novgorod itself lane). Formally remaining independent, Novgorod accepted Mongol rule in 1237. The Western invaders hoped that the Mongol invasion would distract the attention of Novgorod and that this would be the right time to attack.

In the spring of 1240, Swedish troops began advancing into Finland. Alarmed residents of Novgorod called the recently exiled Prince Alexander back to the city to lead the army (Alexander was expelled and called back after the Battle of the Neva lane). Having planned a campaign against the Swedes, Alexander defeated them in the Battle of the Neva and received an honorary title Nevsky.

Campaign in the South

Although the Crusaders were defeated in Finland, they had better luck in the south. Here, at the end of 1240, the mixed forces of the knights of the Livonian and Teutonic orders, Danish, Estonian and Russian troops managed to capture Pskov, Izborsk, and Koporye. But in 1241, Alexander conquered the eastern lands of the Neva, and in March 1242 he liberated Pskov.

Wanting to strike back at the crusaders, he launched a raid on the lands of the Order that same month. Having finished this, Alexander began to retreat to the East. Having gathered his troops in this region together, Hermann, Bishop of Dorpat, went in pursuit.

Battle on the Ice

Although Hermann's troops were smaller in number, they were better equipped than their Russian opponents. The chase continued, and on April 5, Alexander’s army set foot on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Crossing the lake at its narrowest point, he looked for a good defensive position and it turned out to be the eastern shore of the lake, with ice blocks protruding from the uneven ground. Turning around at this point, Alexander lined up his army, placing the infantry in the center and the cavalry on the flanks. Arriving on the west bank, the crusader army formed a wedge, placing heavy cavalry at the head and on the flanks.

Moving on the ice, the crusaders reached the location of Alexander's Russian army. Their progress slowed as they had to overcome rough terrain and suffered casualties from archers. When both armies collided, hand-to-hand combat began. As the battle raged, Alexander ordered his cavalry and horse archers to attack the crusaders' flanks. Rushing forward, they soon successfully surrounded Herman's army and began beating him. As the battle took such a turn, many of the crusaders began to fight their way back across the lake.

According to myths, the crusaders began to fall through the ice, but most likely there were few who failed. Seeing that the enemy was retreating, Alexander allowed them to pursue him only to the western shore of the lake. Having been defeated, the crusaders were forced to flee to the West.

Consequences of the Battle of the Ice

While Russian casualties are not known with any certainty, it is estimated that about 400 Crusaders died and another 50 were captured. After the battle, Alexander offered generous peace terms, which were quickly accepted by Germanus and his allies. Defeats on the Neva and Lake Peipsi effectively stopped the West's attempts to subjugate Novgorod. Based on a minor event, the Battle of the Ice subsequently formed the basis of Russian anti-Western ideology. This legend was promoted by the film Alexander Nevskiy, filmed by Sergei Eisenstein in 1938.

The legend and iconography of the Battle of the Ice was used for propaganda purposes during World War II as a description of Russia's defense against German invaders.