The culture of Rus' in the pre-Mongol period, brief summary. Culture of pre-Mongol Rus' (IX - early XIII centuries). Painting art of Ancient Rus'
Culture of Rus' of the pre-Mongol period
The culture of Rus' of the pre-Mongol period includes the era from the 9th to the 13th centuries, respectively, from the formation of the Old Russian state to the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The basis of any culture is the totality of the accumulated experience of previous generations. When we talk about Ancient Rus', we mean Slavic pagan culture. Let us outline the most general features of pre-Christian Slavic culture: Pre-literate nature of culture Rich folklore Well-developed polytheism Strength of community ties Lack of stone construction The most important factor determining ancient Russian culture is the adoption of Christianity in 988. It is known that the Christianization of the Old Russian state followed the Byzantine model. At the same time, it is necessary to clearly understand that the Byzantine influence was not simple copying - Christian traditions and other cultural features were adopted in Rus' through synthesis with Slavic culture.
Writing
The first and most significant consequence of the adoption of Christianity was the spread of Slavic writing in Rus'. The founders of the Slavic alphabet in 863 were the Byzantine monks Cyril and Methodius. Their authorship is confirmed by sources, for example, the legend “On the Letters” by Chernorizets Khrabr: “Saint Constantine the Philosopher, named Cyril... created letters for us and translated the books, and Methodius, his brother.”
So, after the adoption of Christianity, writing spread in Rus'; first of all, it was required for mastering religious literature and conducting worship services.
Literature
With the development of writing, the literature of the Old Russian state reached a very high level. The majority were translated works, mainly the lives of saints and other religious texts, but ancient literature was also translated. Old Russian literature of its own appeared in the 11th century. About 150 books have reached us from pre-Mongol times. The oldest among them is the Ostromir Gospel. It was written in 1056-1057. for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir, after whom it got its name. At that time they wrote on parchment (otherwise it was called haratya, leather, fur). Parchment was made, as a rule, from specially tanned calfskin. The text began to be written with a capital red letter - the header (the expression “write from the red line” is still preserved). Books were often decorated with drawings called miniatures. The sewn sheets of the book were bound, placed between two boards, which were covered with leather (hence the expression “read from board to board”). Books were expensive, so they were carefully preserved and passed on as part of the inheritance. Translated literature of both religious and secular content became widespread in Rus'. The latter included the famous “Alexandria”, which told about the exploits and life of Alexander the Great, as well as “The Tale of the Sacking of Jerusalem” by Josephus, Byzantine chronicles, etc. In addition to the correspondence of religious texts and numerous translations into Old Russian from Greek and Latin, original works were created ancient Russian authors. Unlike European countries, where Latin was the literary language, in Rus' they wrote in their native language. A number of outstanding literary works were created in Kievan Rus. Among the genres of ancient Russian literature, the chronicle occupies the first place. Historians identify several chronicle collections that preceded the creation of the most famous chronicle of Ancient Rus' - “The Tale of Bygone Years,” compiled by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. In chronicling the period of fragmentation, the leading idea was the continuity and unity of the Russian land since the time of the Kyiv state. The chroniclers of the Russian principalities began with the “Tale of Bygone Years” and continued the narrative until the separation of their lands from Kyiv. Then there was a story about local events. The chronicles of each of the lands differ from each other: the “Pskov Chronicle” is perceived as a heroic military chronicle; the chronicle of the Galicia-Volyn land (“Ipatiev Chronicle”) is filled with descriptions of princely strife; The chronicle of Novgorod is a kind of urban chronicle. The idea of a unified and strong grand-ducal power is characteristic of the chronicle of the Vladimir-Suzdal land (“Laurentian Chronicle”). Various chronicle works were usually named either by the place where they were kept or by the name of the author or scientist who discovered them. For example, the “Ipatiev Chronicle” is so named because it was discovered in the monastery of the same name near Kostroma. The Laurentian Chronicle is named after the monk Laurentius, who wrote it for the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince. Another widespread genre of ancient Russian literature was the biographies of Russian saints. Some of the most famous in Russia were the “lives” of princes Boris and Gleb, who were killed by their brother Svyatopolk in an internecine struggle in 1015. Among journalistic works, one of the first places in ancient Russian literature is occupied by the “Sermon on Law and Grace” of the Kiev Metropolitan Hilarion (40s years of the 11th century), the main idea of which was the equality of Russia with other Christian peoples and states, including Byzantium. Among the most famous works of that time, one should name “Teaching to Children” by Vladimir Monomakh, “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, etc., which brought to us the most important problems that worried the writers of that time: a call for unity against common enemies, glorification of faith and strong princely power, pride in his people and country. The most outstanding work of the period of appanage fragmentation is the immortal “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the pride of our literature. Along with written literature, oral folk art was widely developed, and above all the famous epics telling about the heroic struggle of the people against the nomads, about their creative work.
Education
A distinctive feature of the society of Ancient Rus' is widespread literacy. Birch bark finds, discovered in large quantities in Novgorod, show that literacy levels were high among various segments of the population, including children and women. Naturally, along with the common people, rulers were also educated; the most famous example is Yaroslav, nicknamed the Wise.
Architecture
The development of architecture at the initial stage of the Old Russian state was influenced by Byzantium. First, stone construction spread. Secondly, in Rus' they adopted the shape of the temple - the cross-domed type. However, then the architecture began to take on more and more distinctive features. Examples of Byzantine influence were the Tithe Church and St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. And the St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, built under the leadership of the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir, is an example of strict northern Russian architecture. With the deepening fragmentation in the state, architecture became more and more variable: each prince cared about his own land.
art
The technique of fine art in Rus' also originally came from Byzantium. One of the most revered was the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, also Byzantine. The name of Alimpiy of Pechersk personifies the development of Russian icon painting, his authorship may be the Yaroslavl Oranta icon. The Novgorod school of icon painting showed the world such masterpieces as the icons of the Savior Not Made by Hands and the Golden Haired Angel.
Inside the temple, the walls were decorated with frescoes and mosaics. Fresco is painting with water paints on wet plaster. Fresco images of the sons and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise, everyday scenes depicting buffoons, mummers, hunting, etc. have been preserved in Sophia of Kyiv. Mosaic is an image or pattern made from pieces of stone, marble, ceramics, smalt. In Ancient Rus', mosaic images were made from smalt, a special glassy material. The mosaic is made of a huge figure of Our Lady Oranta praying for humanity in St. Sophia of Kyiv. Icons (from the Greek eikōn - image, image) were a necessary decoration of temples. Icons of that time, as a rule, belonged to churches and were quite large in size. Just like frescoes and mosaics, the first icons in Rus' were painted by Greek masters. The most revered icon in Rus' was the image of the Mother of God with a baby in her arms, made by an unknown Greek painter at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. This icon was named Our Lady of Vladimir and became a kind of symbol of Rus' (it is currently kept in the Tretyakov Gallery). The artist perfectly managed to convey the complex, contradictory range of feelings of a young woman-mother: the joy of motherhood, tender admiration of her child and at the same time a premonition of the torment awaiting her child. The Vladimir Mother of God is one of the most perfect works of world art. Russian masters also achieved significant success in painting. We know the names of Russian icon painters of the 11th century. - Alimpiy, Olyseus, George, etc. With the formation of independent principalities-states in painting, local art schools emerged, differing from each other in the manner of execution and color scheme. The monumental sculpture of pagan times did not receive significant development, since the Orthodox Church saw in it a reminder of overthrown idols and pagan faith. But wood and stone carving became widely developed, especially in decorating the walls of temples. Individual wooden sculptural images of saints were of a random nature and were persecuted by the Orthodox Church. (The first secular sculptural monuments in Russia were erected only in the 18th century.) If economic development and socio-political struggle allow us to judge the general course of the historical process, then the level of culture clearly shows the result of this process. In this regard, the rise of Russian culture during the period of fragmentation, when local art schools were formed on the basis of the culture of Ancient Rus', is a clear evidence of the upward movement of Rus'. One of the most important results of the development of Kievan Rus and the principality-states of the period of fragmentation and their culture was the formation of the Old Russian people. It is characterized by a single language, relative political unity, common territory, proximity of material and spiritual culture, and common historical roots.
Craft
The craft received outstanding development in those distant times. According to the calculations of Academician B. A. Rybakov, in ancient Russian cities, the number of which was approaching 300 at the time of the Mongol invasion, artisans of more than 60 specialties worked. It is known, for example, that Russian blacksmiths made locks that were famous in Western Europe; these locks consisted of more than 40 parts. Self-sharpening knives, consisting of three metal plates, were in great demand, with the middle plate being more hard. Russian artisans who cast bells, jewelers, and glassmakers also became famous. From the middle of the 10th century. The production of bricks, multi-colored ceramics, wood and leather items was widely developed. The production of weapons - chain mail, piercing swords, sabers - received significant development. In the XII-XIII centuries. Crossbows and faceted arrows for them appeared.
Folklore
During the period of struggle against the Mongol conquerors and the Golden Horde yoke, turning to epics and legends of the Kiev cycle, in which battles with the enemies of Ancient Rus' were described in bright colors and the military feat of the people was glorified, gave the Russian people new strength. The ancient epics acquired a deep meaning and took on a second life. New legends (such as, for example, “The Tale of the Invisible City of Kitezh” - a city that sank to the bottom of the lake along with its brave defenders, who did not surrender to the enemies, and became invisible to them), called the Russian people to fight to overthrow the hated Golden Horde yoke . A genre of poetic historical songs is emerging. These include “The Song of Shchelkan Dudentievich,” which tells about the uprising in Tver in 1327.
Chronicle
Thanks to economic growth, business records are becoming increasingly necessary. Since the 14th century paper begins to be used instead of expensive parchment. The growing need for records and the advent of paper led to the acceleration of writing. The “charter”, when square letters were written with geometric precision and solemnity, is being replaced by semi-charter - a more free and fluent letter, and from the 15th century. cursive writing appears, close to modern writing. Along with paper, parchment continued to be used in especially important cases; various types of rough and everyday notes were made, as before, on birch bark.
Interest in world history and the desire to determine one’s place among the peoples of the world gave rise to the appearance of chronographs - works on world history. The first Russian chronograph was compiled in 1442 by Pachomius Logofet.
Historical stories
A common literary genre of that time was historical stories. They told about the activities of real historical figures, specific historical facts and events. The story was often part of the chronicle text. Before the Kulikovo victory, the stories “About the Battle of Kalka”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, stories about Alexander Nevsky and others became widely known.
A series of historical stories is dedicated to the brilliant victory of Dmitry Donskoy in 1380 (for example, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamaev”). Sophony Ryazanets created the famous pathetic poem “Zadonshchina”, modeled after “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. But if “The Lay” described the defeat of the Russians, then “Zadonshchina” described their victory.
During the period of the unification of Russian lands around Moscow, the genre of hagiographic literature flourished. Talented writers Pachomius Logofet and Epiphanius the Wise compiled biographies of the largest church figures of Rus': Metropolitan Peter, who moved the center of the metropolis to Moscow, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity-Sershev Monastery, who supported the Grand Duke of Moscow in the fight against the Horde.
“Walking across Three Seas” (1466-1472) by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. Afanasy Nikitin made his journey 30 years before the discovery of the route to India by the Portuguese Vasco da Gama.
Architecture
Stone construction resumed in Novgorod and Pskov earlier than in other lands. Using previous traditions, Novgorod and Pskov residents built dozens of small-sized temples. An abundance of decorative decorations on the walls, general elegance, and festivity are characteristic of these buildings. The bright and original architecture of Novgorod and Pskov has remained virtually unchanged for centuries. Experts explain this stability of architectural and artistic tastes by the conservatism of the Novgorod boyars, who sought to maintain independence from Moscow. Hence the focus mainly on local traditions.
The first stone buildings in the Moscow Principality date back to the XIV-XV centuries. The churches that have come down to us in Zvenigorod - the Assumption Cathedral (1400) and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery (1405), the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422), the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow (1427) continued the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal white stone architecture. The accumulated experience made it possible to successfully fulfill the most important order of the Grand Duke of Moscow - to create a mighty Moscow Kremlin, full of greatness, dignity and strength.
The first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected under Dmitry Donskoy in 1367. However, after the invasion of Tokhtamysh in 1382, the Kremlin fortifications were badly damaged. A century later, grandiose construction in Moscow with the participation of Italian craftsmen, who then occupied a leading place in Europe, culminated in the creation at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which has survived to this day.
In 1475-1479. The main cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Assumption Cathedral, was built. The majestic five-domed Assumption Cathedral was the largest public building of that time. Here kings were crowned kings, Zemsky Councils met, and the most important state decisions were announced.
In 1481-1489 vols. Pskov craftsmen erected the Annunciation Cathedral - the home church of the Moscow sovereigns. At the same time, the Chamber of Facets was built (1487-1491). It got its name from the “edges” that decorated the outer walls. The Faceted Chamber was part of the royal palace, its throne room. Here foreign ambassadors were introduced to the Tsar, receptions were held, and important decisions were made.
Painting
The merger of local art schools into an all-Russian school was also observed in painting. This was a long process, its traces were noted in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the XIV century. The wonderful artist Theophanes the Greek, who came from Byzantium, worked in Novgorod and Moscow. The fresco paintings of Theophan the Greek that have reached us in the Novgorod Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street are distinguished by their extraordinary expressive power, expression, asceticism, and sublimity of the human spirit. Feofan the Greek was able to use strong, long strokes of his brush and sharp “gaps” to create emotional tension that reached tragedy. Russian people came specifically to observe the work of Theophanes the Greek. Spectators were amazed that the great master wrote his works without using iconographic samples.
The highest rise of Russian icon painting is associated with the work of Theophanes the Greek's contemporary - the brilliant Russian artist Andrei Rublev. Unfortunately, almost no information has been preserved about the life of the outstanding master.
Andrei Rublev lived at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. His work was inspired by the remarkable victory on the Kulikovo Field, the economic rise of Muscovite Rus', and the growing self-awareness of the Russian people. Philosophical depth, inner dignity and strength, ideas of unity and peace between people, humanity are reflected in the artist’s works. A harmonious, soft combination of delicate, pure colors creates the impression of integrity and completeness of his images. The famous “Trinity” (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), which has become one of the pinnacles of world art, embodies the main features and principles of Andrei Rublev’s painting style. The perfect images of the “Trinity” symbolize the idea of the unity of the world and humanity.
The brushes of A. Rublev also belong to the fresco paintings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir that have come down to us, the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (kept in the Tretyakov Gallery), and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad.
Culture in the 16th century
The religious worldview continued to determine the spiritual life of society. The Stoglavy Council of 1551 also played a major role in this. It regulated art, approving the models that were to be followed. The work of Andrei Rublev was formally proclaimed as a model in painting. But what was meant was not the artistic merits of his painting, but the iconography - the arrangement of figures, the use of a certain color, etc. in each specific plot and image. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was taken as a model, in literature - the works of Metropolitan Macarius and his circle.
In the 16th century The formation of the Great Russian nation is completed. In the Russian lands that became part of a single state, more and more common things were discovered in language, way of life, morals, customs, etc. In the 16th century Secular elements in culture appeared more noticeably than before.
Chronicle
In the 16th century Russian chronicle writing continued to develop. Works of this genre include “The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom,” which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish royal power in Rus'. Another major work of that time is the “Book of the Degree of the Royal Genealogy.” Portraits and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans are arranged in 17 degrees - from Vladimir I to Ivan the Terrible. This arrangement and construction of the text seems to symbolize the inviolability of the union of the church and the king.
In the middle of the 16th century. Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge chronicle corpus, a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century. - the so-called Nikon Chronicle (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). One of the lists of the Nikon Chronicle contains about 16 thousand miniatures - color illustrations, for which it received the name Facial Vault (“face” - image).
Along with chronicle writing, historical stories, which told about the events of that time, were further developed. (“Capture of Kazan”, “On the coming of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov”, etc.) New chronographs were created. The secularization of culture is evidenced by a book written at this time, containing a variety of useful information from leadership in both spiritual and worldly life - “Domostroy” (translated as housekeeping), the author of which is considered to be Sylvester.
The beginning of printing
The beginning of Russian book printing is considered to be 1564, when pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated book, “The Apostle.” However, there are seven books without an exact publication date. These are the so-called anonymous books - books published before 1564. One of the most talented Russian people of the 16th century was in charge of organizing the work to create a printing house. Ivan Fedorov. The printing work that began in the Kremlin was transferred to Nikolskaya Street, where a special building for the printing house was built. In addition to religious books, Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavets in 1574 in Lvov published the first Russian primer - “ABC”. For the entire 16th century. In Russia, only 20 books were published by printing. The handwritten book occupied a leading place in both the 16th and 17th centuries.
Architecture
One of the outstanding manifestations of the heyday of Russian architecture was the construction of tent-roofed churches. Tent temples do not have pillars inside, and the entire mass of the building rests on the foundation. The most famous monuments of this style are the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in honor of the birth of Ivan the Terrible, and the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral), built in honor of the capture of Kazan.
Another direction in the architecture of the 16th century. there was the construction of large five-domed monastery churches modeled on the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. Similar temples were built in many Russian monasteries and, as main cathedrals, in the largest Russian cities. The most famous are the Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.
Another direction in architecture of the 16th century. there was the construction of small stone or wooden settlement churches. They were the centers of settlements inhabited by artisans of a certain specialty, and were dedicated to a certain saint - the patron saint of a given craft.
In the 16th century extensive construction of stone kremlins was carried out. In the 30s of the 16th century. the part of the settlement adjacent to the east of the Moscow Kremlin was surrounded by a brick wall called Kitaygorodskaya (a number of historians believe that the name came from the word “kita” - a string of poles used in the construction of fortresses, others believe that the name came either from the Italian word - city, or from Turkic - fortress). The Kitay-Gorod wall protected the trade on Red Square and nearby settlements.
Painting
The largest Russian painter who lived at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries was Dionysius. The works belonging to his brush include the fresco painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda, an icon depicting scenes from the life of Moscow Metropolitan Alexei, etc. Dionysius’s paintings are characterized by the extraordinary brightness, festivity, and sophistication that he achieved. using techniques such as lengthening the proportions of the human body, refinement in the finishing of every detail of an icon or fresco.
TROUBLES
The heir of Ivan the Terrible, Fyodor I Ioannovich (from 1584), was incapable of governing affairs, and the youngest son, Tsarevich Dmitry, was an infant. With the death of Dmitry (1591) and Fedor (1598), the ruling dynasty came to an end, and boyar families came to the fore - the Zakharyins (Romanovs), the Godunovs. In 1598, Boris Godunov was elevated to the throne.
Three years, from 1601 to 1603, were barren, frosts continued even in the summer months, and snow fell in September. A terrible famine broke out, killing up to half a million people. Masses of people flocked to Moscow, where the government distributed money and bread to the needy. However, these measures only increased economic disorganization. The landowners could not feed their slaves and servants and kicked them out of their estates. Left without a means of livelihood, people turned to robbery and robbery, increasing the general chaos. Individual gangs grew to several hundred people.
The beginning of the Time of Troubles refers to the intensification of rumors that the legitimate Tsarevich Dmitry was alive, from which it followed that the reign of Boris Godunov was illegal and not pleasing to God. At the beginning of 1604, the impostor received an audience with the Polish king and soon converted to Catholicism. King Sigismund recognized the rights of False Dmitry to the Russian throne and allowed everyone to help the “prince.” For this, False Dmitry promised to transfer Smolensk and the Seversky lands to Poland. For the consent of the governor Mnishek to the marriage of his daughter with False Dmitry, he also promised to transfer Novgorod and Pskov to his bride. Mniszech equipped the impostor with an army consisting of Zaporozhye Cossacks and Polish mercenaries. In 1604, the impostor’s army crossed the Russian border, many cities (Moravsk, Chernigov, Putivl) surrendered to False Dmitry. However, another army sent by Godunov against the impostor won a convincing victory in the battle of Dobrynichi. The most noble boyar, Vasily Shuisky, commanded the Moscow army. At the height of the war, Boris Godunov died; Godunov's army, which was besieging Kromy, almost immediately betrayed his successor, 16-year-old Fyodor Borisovich, who was overthrown and killed along with his mother.
In 1605, amid general rejoicing, the impostor solemnly entered Moscow. The Moscow boyars publicly recognized him as the legal heir and Prince of Moscow. Ryazan Archbishop Ignatius, who confirmed Dmitry's rights to the kingdom back in Tula, was elevated to patriarchy. The legitimate Patriarch Job was removed from the patriarchal see and imprisoned in a monastery. Then Queen Martha, who recognized the impostor as her son, was brought to the capital, and soon False Dmitry I was crowned king.
The reign of False Dmitry was marked by an orientation toward Poland and some attempts at reform. Not all of the Moscow boyars recognized False Dmitry as the legitimate ruler. Almost immediately upon his arrival in Moscow, Prince Vasily Shuisky, through intermediaries, began to spread rumors about imposture. Voivode Pyotr Basmanov uncovered the plot, and on June 23, 1605, Shuisky was captured and sentenced to death, pardoned only directly at the chopping block. Having secured the support of the Novgorod-Pskov detachment stationed near Moscow, which was preparing for a campaign against the Crimea, Shuisky organized a coup.
On the night of May 16-17, 1606, the boyar opposition, taking advantage of the embitterment of Muscovites against the Polish adventurers who came to Moscow for the wedding of False Dmitry, raised an uprising, during which the impostor was brutally killed. The coming to power of the representative of the Suzdal branch of the Rurikovich boyar Vasily Shuisky did not bring peace. In the south, the uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607) broke out, giving rise to the beginning of the “thieves” movement.
Rumors about the miraculous salvation of Tsarevich Dmitry did not subside. In the summer of 1607, a new impostor appeared in Starodub, who went down in history as False Dmitry II or the “Tushino Thief” (after the name of the village of Tushino, where the impostor camped when he approached Moscow).
Popular movements
Russian culture 17th century
The final stage in the history of Russian medieval culture was the 17th century. In this century, the process of “secularization” of culture began, strengthening secular elements and democratic tendencies in it. Cultural ties with Western European countries have noticeably expanded and deepened. All areas of culture have become significantly more complex and differentiated.
Russian literature of the 17th century.
Russian literature continued to be represented by journalistic works devoted to acute political problems. The Time of Troubles increased interest in the question of the nature of power in the political system. Among the most famous authors of the 17th century. - Croatian Yuri Krizanich, a European-educated thinker, a supporter of an unlimited monarchy, one of the first theorists of the idea of Slavic unity (he can be called the predecessor and theorist of Pan-Slavism). Thus, he believed that the role of the Slavs in the world historical process is constantly growing, although it is subject to oppression and insult from foreigners, especially Turks and Germans. He assigned a special role in the future rise of the Slavs to Russia, which, having become a leading world power as a result of reforms, would liberate the enslaved Slavic and other peoples and lead them forward.
The ambiguity of the events of this time led to the fact that writers began to think about the inconsistency of human character. If earlier the heroes of books were either absolutely good or absolutely evil, now writers discover free will in a person, show his ability to change himself depending on circumstances. This is exactly how the heroes of the Chronograph of 1617 appear before us - Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, Vasily Shuisky, Kuzma Minin. As noted by Academician D.S. Likhachev, this showed a tendency to discover human character: the heroes of literature become not only holy ascetics and princes, as before, but also ordinary people - merchants, peasants, poor nobles who acted in easily recognizable situations.
Spread of literacy in the 17th century. attracted new layers of the population into the circle of readers - provincial nobles, servicemen and townspeople. The change in the social composition of the reading public has put forward new demands on literature. Such readers are especially interested in entertaining reading, the need for which was satisfied by translated knightly novels and original adventure stories. By the end of the 17th century. The Russian reading public knew up to a dozen works that came to Russia from abroad in different ways. Among them, the most popular were “The Tale of Bova Korolevich” and “The Tale of Peter the Golden Keys”. These works on Russian soil, while retaining some features of the chivalric romance, became so close to the fairy tale that they later passed into folklore. New features of literary and real life clearly appeared in everyday stories, the heroes of which sought to live according to their own will, rejecting the precepts of antiquity.
In the 17th century A new literary genre arose - democratic satire, closely connected with folk art and folk laughter culture. It was created among the townspeople, clerks, lower clergy, dissatisfied with the oppression of the feudal lords, the state and the church. In particular, numerous parodies appeared, for example, on legal proceedings (“The Tale of Shemyakin’s Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”), and on hagiographic works (“The Lay of the Hawkmoth”).
The birth of versification became a striking feature of literary life. Before this, Russia knew poetry only in folk art - in epics, but epics were not rhymed verse. Rhymed poetry arose under the influence of Polish syllabic versification, which is characterized by an equal number of syllables per line, a pause in the middle of the line and an end rhyme under a single strictly obligatory stress. Its founder was Belarusian Simeon of Polotsk. He was the court poet of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and composed numerous recitations and monologues. He saw his task as creating Novorossiysk literature, and in many ways he accomplished this mission. His works are distinguished by their ornamentation, splendor, and reflect the idea of the “variegation of the world” and the changeability of existence. Polotsky has a craving for sensationalism, a desire to surprise and amaze the reader both in the form of presentation and in the unusualness and exoticism of the information reported. This is “Vertograd multicolored” - a kind of encyclopedia, which contains several thousand rhymed texts containing data drawn from various fields of knowledge - history, zoology, botany, geography, etc. At the same time, reliable information is interspersed with the mythologized ideas of the author.
Author's prose also appears for the first time in the 17th century; an example of it are the works of Archpriest Avvakum Petrov. He left about 90 texts written at the end of his life in exile. Among them is the famous “Life” - an emotional and eloquent confession, striking in its sincerity and courage. In his book, for the first time, the author and the hero of the work are combined, which previously would have been considered a manifestation of pride.
Theater in Russia appeared due to the emergence of secular elements in the spiritual life of society. The idea of creating a theater arose in court circles among supporters of the Europeanization of the country. A decisive role in this was played by Artamon Matveev, the head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, who was familiar with the production of theater in Europe. There were no actors in Russia (the experience of buffoons, who were persecuted at that time, was not suitable), and there were no plays. The actors and director Johann Gregory were found in the German settlement. The first performance, which was a great success, was called “The Artaxerxes Act.” The king was so fascinated by what was happening that he watched the play for 10 hours without leaving his seat. The theater's repertoire during its existence (1672-1676) consisted of nine performances on biblical subjects and one ballet. The actions of Old Testament characters were given features of political relevance and association with modernity, which further increased interest in the spectacle.
Russian painting of the 17th century.
Painting did not succumb as easily as architecture to secular influences, but the desire for decorativeness is observed here too. On the one hand, there is a noticeable desire to break free from the power of outdated traditions, the canon, a thirst for knowledge, a search for new moral norms, plots and images, and on the other hand, persistent attempts to turn the traditional into dogma, to keep the old intact at any cost. Therefore, icon painting in the 17th century. represented by several main directions and schools.
In the first half of the century, the main dispute in icon painting was between two schools - Godunov and Stroganov. The Godunov school gravitated towards the traditions of the past. But their attempts to follow the ancient canon, focusing on Andrei Rublev and Dionysius only led to narrative, overloaded composition. The Stroganov school (so named because many works of this style were commissioned by the Stroganovs) arose in Moscow, among state and patriarchal masters. The characteristic features of the icons of the Stroganov school are, first of all, their small size and detailed, precise writing, which contemporaries called “petty writing.” Main style features of the building
The Old Russian state, formed in the 9th century, two centuries later was already a powerful medieval state. Having adopted the Christian religion from Byzantium, Kievan Rus adopted everything valuable that this most advanced state in Europe had for that period. That is why the influence of Byzantine culture on ancient Russian art is so clearly visible and so strong. But in the pre-Christian period, the Eastern Slavs had a fairly developed art. Unfortunately, the passing centuries brought down a huge number of raids, wars and a variety of disasters on the territories inhabited by the Eastern Slavs, which destroyed, burned or razed to the ground almost everything that was created during the pagan period.
By the time the state was formed, Rus' consisted of 25 cities, which were almost entirely wooden. The craftsmen who built them were very skilled carpenters. They built elaborate princely castles, towers for the nobility, and public buildings from wood. Many of them were decorated with intricate carvings. Stone buildings were also erected, this is confirmed by archaeological excavations and literary sources. The most ancient cities of Rus', surviving to this day, have practically nothing in common with their original appearance. The ancient Slavs created sculpture - wooden and stone. An example of this art has survived to this day - the Zbruch Idol, kept in the Krakow Museum. Very interesting examples of ancient Slavic jewelry made of bronze: clasps, amulets, amulets, bracelets, rings. There are skillfully made household items in the form of fantastic birds and animals. This confirms that for the ancient Slav the world around him was filled with life.
Since ancient times, writing has existed in Rus', but there were almost no literary works of its own. They read mainly Bulgarian and Greek manuscripts. But at the beginning of the 12th century, the first Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by the first Russian Metropolitan Hilarion, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik, “Kievo-Pechersk Patericon” appeared. The pearl of ancient Russian literature remains “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” by an unknown author of the 12th century. Written two centuries after the adoption of Christianity, it is literally permeated with pagan images, for which the church persecuted him. By the 18th century, the only copy of the manuscript reached us, which can rightfully be considered the pinnacle of ancient Russian poetry. But medieval Russian culture was not homogeneous. It is quite clearly divided into the so-called elite culture, which was intended for the clergy, secular feudal lords, wealthy townspeople, and the culture of the lower classes, which is a truly popular culture. Respecting and valuing literacy and the written word, ordinary people could not always afford it, especially handwritten works. Therefore, oral folk art and folklore were very widespread. Not being able to read or write, our ancestors compiled oral monuments of folk culture - epics and fairy tales. In these works, people comprehend the connection between the past and the present, dream about the future, and tell descendants not only about princes and boyars, but also about ordinary people. The epics give an idea of what truly interested the common people, what ideals and ideas they had. The vitality of these works and their relevance can be confirmed by modern cartoons based on the works of the ancient Russian folk epic. “Alyosha and Tugarin the Snake”, “Ilya Muromets”, “Dobrynya Nikitich” have existed for the second millennium and are popular with viewers now in the 21st century.
4) Architecture, architecture of Kievan Rus.
Few people know that Rus' was a wooden country for many long years, and its architecture, pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, and huts were built of wood. It goes without saying that in a tree, a person, at first, like the peoples who lived next to the Eastern Slavs, expressed their perception of building beauty, a sense of proportion, merging, building structures with the surrounding nature. It would be bad if we did not note that if arboreal architecture goes back mainly to Rus', as everyone knows, is pagan, then stone architecture is associated with already Christian Russia. Unfortunately, the most ancient wooden buildings have not survived to this day, but the building style of the people has come down to us in later wooden structures, in old descriptions and drawings. Undoubtedly, it is worth mentioning that Russian wooden architecture was characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowning them with turrets and towers, and the presence of various types of extensions - cages, passages, vestibules. Unusual, artistic wood carving was a common decoration of Russian wooden buildings. This tradition lives on among the people until real time.
The first stone building in Rus' appeared at the end of the 10th century. - The famous Church of the Tithes in Kyiv, built on the orders of Prince Vladimir the Baptist. Unfortunately, it did not survive. But to this day the famous Sofia of Kiev, built several decades later, still stands.
Both temples were, in general, built by Byzantine masters from their usual plinth - large flat brick measuring 40/30/3 cm. The mortar connecting the rows of plinth was a consistency of lime, sand and crushed brick. Reddish plinth and pink mortar made the walls of Byzantine and early Russian churches elegantly striped.
Built from plinth mainly in the south Rus'. In the north, in Novgorod, far from Kyiv, they preferred stone. True, the arches and vaults were still made of brick. Novgorod stone “gray flagstone” is a natural hard stone. Walls were made from it without any processing.
At the end of the 15th century. V architecture of Kievan Rus a new material emerged - brick. Everyone knows that it became widespread because it was cheaper and more accessible than stone.
The world of Byzantium, the world of Christianity, the states of the Caucasus brought the latest construction experience and traditions to Rus': Rus' adopted the construction of its own churches in the form of a cross-domed temple of the Greeks, a square dissected by 4 pillars forms its base, rectangular cells adjacent to the dome area form the building cross. But the Greek professionals who arrived in Rus', starting from the time of Vladimir, and the Russian craftsmen working with them, applied this standard to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture, common to the Russian eye and dear to the heart, if the first Russian churches, including the Tithe Church, in end of the 10th century were built, so to speak, by Greek masters in serious accordance with Byzantine traditions, then the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev reflected a combination of Slavic and Byzantine traditions: thirteen joyful domes of the new temple were placed on the base of the cross-domed temple. This step pyramid of the St. Sophia Cathedral resurrected the style of Russian timber architecture.
The St. Sophia Cathedral, made during the establishment and rise of Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise, showed that construction is also politics. And indeed, with this temple, Rus' challenged Byzantium, its recognized shrine - the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople. It must be said that in the 11th century. St. Sophia Cathedrals grew up in the other principal centers of Rus' - Novgorod, Polotsk, and any of them claimed their own prestige, independent of Kiev, just like Chernigov, where the monumental Transfiguration Cathedral was built. It must be emphasized that monumental multi-domed churches with thick walls and small windows were built throughout Rus', evidence of power and beauty.
Temples were immediately built in Novgorod and Smolensk, Chernigov and Galich. new fortresses were laid, stone palaces and chambers of rich people were built. A corresponding feature of Russian architecture of those decades was the stone carvings decorating the buildings.
Another feature that unites all Russian architecture of that time was the organic combination of building structures with the natural landscape. Look at how Russian churches were built and still stand today, and you will understand what we are talking about.
St. Sophia Cathedral as the first architecture of Kievan Rus
The first stone architectural structures were built at the end of the 10th century, with the advent of Christianity. The first stone church was built in 989, by order of Vladimir the Great. It has not survived to this day. The style of the building was Byzantine. A striking example that has remained from those times is the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. The date of completion of its construction dates back to 1036, under the principality of Yaroslav the Wise.
St. Sophia Cathedral was built on the site of the prince's victory over the Pechenegs. The cathedral was first crowned with thirteen baths, which created a pyramidal structure. Now the temple has 19 baths. From the west, according to Byzantine tradition, two towers, called staircases, approach the temple; they lead to the choir, as well as a flat roof. St. Sophia Cathedral is the pearl of the architecture of Kievan Rus. This temple combines Byzantine and Russian styles.
Transfiguration Cathedral
Another masterpiece of Russian architecture is the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov. It was founded by the brother of Yaroslav the Wise Mstislav in 1030. The Spassky Cathedral was the main shrine of the Chernigov land and city, as well as the tomb in which Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, his wife Anastasia, their son Eustathius, Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich were buried. Spassky Cathedral is a unique building, one of the oldest churches of Kievan Rus.
Pyatnitskaya Church
Also one of the oldest churches is the Pyatnitskaya Church in Chernigov. This church belongs to the typical single-domed churches with four pillars. The name of the architect is unknown. Pyatnitsky Church is unique, inimitable and, perhaps, the most beautiful in all the pre-Mongol temple architecture of Kievan Rus. By the way, this church has been restored.
Panteleimon Church
The only architectural monument of the Galicia-Volyn principality that has survived to our times is the Church of Panteleimon. It is built on top of a hill, in the place where the Dniester and Lokva merge into one. The temple was built from blocks, which were fitted very tightly to each other and secured with a thin layer of fastening mortar. The construction turned out to be very durable. The architecture of the temple combines three styles: Byzantine, Romanesque and traditional Old Russian. In those days of war and internecine struggle, churches and cathedrals were built as defensive structures, which is why the Church of Panteleimon has such a special architecture.
Upper castle
Also included in the architecture of Rus' is the Upper Castle in Lutsk, which was built in the second half of the 14th century. A drawbridge led across a deep moat to the castle. The length of the castle walls is 240 m, the height is 10 m, and there are three towers in the corners:
1) The entrance tower was erected at the end of the 13th century. At first it was three-tiered. After adding two more tiers, its height reached 27 meters. The thickness of the walls of the lower tiers reaches 3.6 m.
2) Styrova Tower. It received this name because it is located above the Styr River. It was built during the XIII-XIV centuries. The height of the tower is 27 m.
3) Vladychya - the third tower, has a height of 13.5 meters. In ancient times, it was maintained at the expense of the ruler, hence its name. In the tower itself there is a museum of bells, and in the dungeon there is a prison.
Between the Entrance and Styrovaya towers, on the site of the princely hotel, there is a “noble house”.
Most of the temples and castles of Rus' were restored several times due to the Mongol invasion.
5) Russian icon. Tempera painting. Manner of writing. Subjects and images.
Russian icon painting- the fine art of Ancient Rus' that developed in the depths of the Orthodox Church, which began at the end of the 10th century with the baptism of Rus'. The basis for the emergence of Russian painting were examples of Byzantine art. Icon painting remained the core of Old Russian culture until the end of the 17th century.
Icon is a painting depicting saints and episodes from the Bible. “Icon” translated from Greek means “image”, “image”. In Rus', icons were called “images”.
Icon painting technique
On a wooden base with a selected recess - “ark” (or without it) a fabric - “pavolok” is glued. Next, a primer is applied, which is chalk mixed with animal or fish glue with the addition of linseed oil - “gesso”. The first stage of the actual painting work is “revealing” - laying out the basic tones. Egg paint is used as paint tempera* on natural pigments. In Russia, the technique of tempera painting was predominant in art until the end of the 17th century. (an example of tempera is the Icon of the Savior from the Zvenigorod rank. Andrei Rublev. XIV - XV centuries.) The process of working on the face is completed by the application of “movers” - light dots, spots and features in the most intense areas of the image. At the final stage, clothes, hair and other necessary details of the image are painted with created gold, or gilding is done on the assist (touches of gold or silver leaf on the folds of clothes, feathers, angels’ wings, and so on). Upon completion of all work, the icon is covered with a protective layer - natural drying oil.
Tempera*- water-based paints prepared on the basis of dry powder pigments. The binders for tempera paints are emulsions - natural (chicken egg yolk diluted with water or a whole egg) or artificial (drying oils in an aqueous solution of glue, polymers).
In Rus', icon painting was considered an important, state matter. Chronicles, along with events of national importance, noted the construction of new churches and the creation of icons. There was an ancient tradition - only monks were allowed to paint icons, and those who had not stained themselves with sinful deeds.
Iconography is ascetic, harsh and completely illusory. A sign, a symbol, a parable is a way of expressing truth that is well known to us from the Bible. The language of religious symbolism is capable of conveying complex and deep concepts of spiritual reality. Christ, the apostles and prophets resorted to the language of parables in their sermons. A grapevine, a lost drachma, a withered fig tree and other images that have become significant symbols in Christian culture.
Its purpose is a reminder of the image of God, help in entering the psychological state necessary for prayer.
Types of images, compositional schemes, symbolism were approved and illuminated by the church. In particular, in painting there were rules and techniques that every artist had to follow - canons. The main guide for creating icons for painters was ancient originals brought from Byzantium. For many centuries, canonical painting fit into strictly defined frameworks, allowing only the repetition of iconographic originals.
The philosophical meaning of the canon is that the “spiritual world” is immaterial and invisible, and therefore inaccessible to ordinary perception. It can only be depicted using symbols. The icon painter in every possible way emphasizes the difference between the heavenly world depicted with the saints who have joined it and the earthly world in which the viewer lives. To achieve this, proportions are deliberately distorted and perspective is disrupted.
Let us list some basic rules of the icon painting canon:
1. Proportions. The width of ancient icons correlates with the height 3:4 or 4:5, regardless of the size of the icon board.
2. Sizes of figures. The height of the face is equal to 0.1 of the height of his body (according to Byzantine rules, a person’s height is equal to 9 head measures). The distance between the pupils was equal to the size of the nose.
3. Lines. There should be no torn lines on the icon; they are either closed, or emanate from one point, or connect to another line. The lines of the face are thin at the beginning and end, and thickened in the middle. The lines of architecture are of equal thickness everywhere.
4. The use of reverse perspective - consisting only of close and medium plans, the long shot was limited to an opaque background - gold, red, green or blue. As they move away from the viewer, objects do not decrease, but increase.
5. All painters resorted to the symbolism of colors, each color carried its own meaning. For example, the color gold, symbolizing the radiance of Divine glory in which the saints abide. The golden background of the icon, the halos of saints, the golden radiance around the figure of Christ, the golden clothes of the Savior and the Mother of God - all this serves as an expression of holiness and eternal values belonging to the world.
6. Gestures also had a symbolic meaning. The gesture in the icon conveys a certain spiritual impulse, carries certain spiritual information: a hand pressed to the chest - heartfelt empathy; a hand raised up is a call to repentance; two hands raised up - prayer for peace, etc.
7. The objects in the hands of the depicted saint were also of great importance, as signs of his service. Thus, the Apostle Paul was usually depicted with a book in his hands - this is the Gospel, less often with a sword, symbolizing the Word of God.
The face (face) in an icon is the most important thing. In the practice of icon painting, the background, landscape, architecture, clothes were first painted, and only then the main master began painting the face. Compliance with this order of work was important, because the icon, like the entire universe, is hierarchical. The proportions of the face were deliberately distorted. It was believed that the eyes are the mirror of the soul, which is why the eyes on the icons are so large and soulful. Let us recall the expressive eyes of pre-Mongol icons (for example, “The Savior Not Made by Hands” Novgorod, 12th century). The mouth, on the contrary, symbolized sensuality, so the lips were drawn disproportionately small. Starting from Rublev's time at the beginning of the 15th century. the eyes no longer painted so exaggeratedly large, nevertheless, great attention is always paid to them. On Rublev’s icon “The Savior of Zvenigorod,” what is first striking is the deep and soulful gaze of the Savior. Theophan the Greek depicted some saints with their eyes closed or with empty eye sockets altogether - in this way the artist tried to convey the idea that their gaze was directed not at the outside world, but inward, at the contemplation of divine truth and inner prayer.
The figures of the depicted biblical characters were painted less densely, in few layers, deliberately elongated, which created the visual effect of their lightness, overcoming the physicality and volume of their bodies.
The main characters of the icons are the Mother of God, Christ, John the Baptist, apostles, forefathers, prophets, holy associates and great martyrs. The images could be: main (only the face), shoulder-length (shoulder-length), waist-length (waist-length), full-length.
Saints were often painted surrounded by separate small compositions on the themes of their lives - the so-called hagiographical marks. Such icons told about the Christian feat of the character.
A separate group consisted of icons dedicated to evangelical events, which formed the basis of the main church holidays, as well as icons painted on the basis of Old Testament stories.
Let's look at the basic iconography of the Mother of God and Christ - the most important and revered images in Christianity:
In total, there were about 200 iconographic types of images of the Mother of God, the names of which are usually associated with the name of the area where they were especially revered or where they first appeared: Vladimir, Kazan, Smolensk, Iverskaya, etc. The love and veneration of the Mother of God among the people inextricably merged with her icons, some of them are recognized as miraculous and there are holidays in honor of them.
Images of the Mother of God. Hodegetria (Guide Book)- This is a half-length image of the Mother of God with the Child Christ in her arms. The right hand of Christ is in a blessing gesture, in his left he has a scroll - a sign of the Holy Teaching. The Mother of God holds her son with one hand and points to him with the other. One of the best icons of the “Hodegetria” type is considered to be “Our Lady of Smolensk,” created in 1482 by the great artist Dionysius.
Eleusa (Tenderness)- This is a half-length image of the Mother of God with a baby in her arms, bowed to each other. The Mother of God hugs her son, he presses his cheek to hers. The most famous icon of the Mother of God is the Vladimir one; scientists date it to the 12th century; according to chronicle evidence, it was brought from Constantinople. Subsequently, the Mother of God of Vladimir was rewritten several times; there were many copies of her. For example, the famous repetition of “Our Lady of Vladimir” was created at the beginning of the 15th century. for the Assumption Cathedral in the city of Vladimir, to replace the ancient original transported to Moscow. The Icon of Our Lady of Vladimir is credited with saving Moscow from Tamerlane in 1395, when he unexpectedly interrupted his campaign against the city and returned to the steppe. Muscovites explained this event by the intercession of the Mother of God, who allegedly appeared to Tamerlane in a dream and ordered him not to touch the city. The famous Mother of God of the Don, supposedly painted by Theophanes the Greek himself and which became the main shrine of the church founded in the 16th century, also belongs to the “Tenderness” type. Moscow Donskoy Monastery. According to legend, she was with Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo field in 1380 and helped defeat the Tatars.
Oranta (Praying)- This is a full-length image of the Mother of God with her hands raised to the sky. When a round medallion with the infant Christ is depicted on Oranta’s chest, this type in iconography is called the Great Panagia (All-Holy).
Sign or Incarnation- This is a half-length image of the Mother of God with her hands raised in prayer. As in the Great Panagia, on the chest of the Mother of God there is a disk with the image of Christ, symbolizing the incarnation of the God-man.
The main and central image of ancient Russian painting is the image of Jesus Christ, the Savior, as he was called in Rus'.
Image of Christ. Pantocrator (Almighty)- This is a half-length or full-length image of Christ. His right hand is raised in a blessing gesture, in his left he holds the Gospel - a sign of the teaching he brought into the world. The famous “Zvenigorod Spas” by Andrei Rublev from this series is one of the greatest works of ancient Russian painting, one of the best creations of the author.
Savior on the throne- This is an image of Christ in the robes of a Byzantine emperor seated on a throne (throne). With his right hand raised in front of his chest, he blesses, and with his left he touches the opened Gospel.
In addition to the usual composition of “The Savior on the Throne,” there were also images in ancient Russian art where the figure of Christ seated on the throne was surrounded by various symbolic signs indicating the fullness of his power and the judgment he carried out on the world. These images formed a separate set and were called Savior is in power.
Spas Bishop the Great- an image of Christ in a bishop’s robe, revealing him in the image of a New Testament high priest.
Savior Not Made by Hands- this is one of the oldest images of Christ, where only the face of the Savior is depicted, imprinted on fabric. The oldest surviving one is the Novgorod “Savior Not Made by Hands,” created in the 12th century. and now owned by the State Tretyakov Gallery. No less famous is the “Savior Not Made by Hands” from the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, dating back to the 15th century.
Savior Not Made by Hands in the Crown of Thorns- one of the varieties of this image, although it is rare; this type of image appears in Russian icon painting only in the 17th century.
Even less common is the image of the infant Christ with a star-shaped halo, personifying Christ before the incarnation (i.e., before birth), or Christ in the form of an archangel with wings. Such icons are called Angel of the Great Council.
6) Old Russian literature.
Old Russian literature is “the beginning of all beginnings,” the origins and roots of Russian classical literature, national Russian artistic culture. Its spiritual, moral values and ideals are great. It is filled with patriotic pathos of service to the Russian land, state, and homeland.
To feel the spiritual riches of ancient Russian literature, you need to look at it through the eyes of its contemporaries, to feel like a participant in that life and those events. Literature is part of reality; it occupies a certain place in the history of the people and fulfills enormous social responsibilities.
Academician D.S. Likhachev invites readers of ancient Russian literature to mentally transport themselves to the initial period of the life of Rus', to the era of the inseparable existence of the East Slavic tribes, to the 11th–13th centuries.
The Russian land is huge, settlements in it are rare. A person feels lost among impenetrable forests or, on the contrary, among the endless expanses of steppes that are too easily accessible to his enemies: “the unknown land,” “the wild field,” as our ancestors called them. To cross the Russian land from end to end, you need to spend many days on a horse or in a boat. Off-road conditions in spring and late autumn take months and make it difficult for people to communicate.
In boundless spaces, man was especially drawn to communication and sought to mark his existence. Tall, bright churches on hills or on steep river banks mark settlement sites from afar. These structures are distinguished by a surprisingly laconic architecture - they are designed to be visible from many points and serve as beacons on the roads. Churches seem to be sculpted by a caring hand, keeping the warmth and caress of human fingers in the unevenness of their walls. In such conditions, hospitality becomes one of the basic human virtues. The Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh calls in his “Teaching” to “welcome” the guest. Frequent moving from place to place belongs to considerable virtues, and in other cases even turns into a passion for vagrancy. The dances and songs reflect the same desire to conquer space. It is well said about Russian drawn-out songs in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”: “... the davitsi sing on the Danube, - the voices curl across the sea to Kyiv.” In Rus', even a designation was born for a special type of courage associated with space and movement - “prowess”.
In the vast expanses, people with particular acuteness felt and valued their unity - and, first of all, the unity of the language in which they spoke, in which they sang, in which they told legends of deep antiquity, again testifying to their integrity and indivisibility. Under the conditions of that time, even the word “language” itself takes on the meaning of “people”, “nation”. The role of literature becomes especially significant. It serves the same purpose of unification, expresses the national consciousness of unity. She is the keeper of history and legends, and these latter were a kind of means of developing space, marking the holiness and significance of a particular place: a tract, a mound, a village, etc. Legends also imparted historical depth to the country; they were the “fourth dimension” within which the entire vast Russian land, its history, its national identity were perceived and became “visible.” The same role was played by chronicles and lives of saints, historical stories and stories about the founding of monasteries.
All ancient Russian literature, up to the 17th century, was distinguished by deep historicism, rooted in the land that the Russian people occupied and developed for centuries. Literature and the Russian land, literature and Russian history were closely connected. Literature was one of the ways to master the surrounding world. It is not for nothing that the author of praise for books and Yaroslav the Wise wrote in the chronicle: “Behold, these are the rivers that water the universe...”, compared Prince Vladimir to a farmer who plowed the land, and Yaroslav to a sower who “sowed” the land with “bookish words.” Writing books is cultivating the land, and we already know which one - Russian, inhabited by the Russian "language", i.e. Russian people. And, like the work of a farmer, the copying of books has always been a sacred task in Rus'. Here and there sprouts of life, grains, were thrown into the ground, the shoots of which were to be reaped by future generations.
Since rewriting books is a sacred task, books could only be on the most important topics. All of them, to one degree or another, represented “book teaching.” Literature was not of an entertaining nature, it was a school, and its individual works were, to one degree or another, teachings.
What did ancient Russian literature teach? Let's leave aside those religious and church issues with which she was busy. The secular element of ancient Russian literature was deeply patriotic. She taught active love for the homeland, fostered citizenship, and strived to correct the shortcomings of society.
If in the first centuries of Russian literature, in the 11th–13th centuries, she called on the princes to stop discord and firmly fulfill their duty of defending their homeland, then in the subsequent centuries - in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries - she no longer cares only about protecting the homeland, but also about reasonable government system. At the same time, throughout its development, literature was closely connected with history. And she not only reported historical information, but sought to determine the place of Russian history in world history, to discover the meaning of the existence of man and humanity, to discover the purpose of the Russian state.
Russian history and the Russian land itself united all works of Russian literature into a single whole. In essence, all the monuments of Russian literature, thanks to their historical themes, were much more closely connected with each other than in modern times. They could be arranged in chronological order, and as a whole they set out one story - Russian and at the same time world. The works were more closely connected with each other as a result of the absence of a strong authorial principle in ancient Russian literature. Literature was traditional, new things were created as a continuation of what already existed and based on the same aesthetic principles. The works were rewritten and reworked. They reflected more strongly the reader's tastes and requirements than the literature of modern times. Books and their readers were closer to each other, and the collective principle was more strongly represented in the works. Ancient literature, by the nature of its existence and creation, was closer to folklore than to the personal creativity of modern times. The work, once created by the author, was then changed by countless copyists, altered, in different environments acquired various ideological colors, supplemented, acquired new episodes.
“The role of literature is enormous, and happy are the people who have great literature in their native language... In order to perceive cultural values in their entirety, it is necessary to know their origin, the process of their creation and historical change, the cultural memory embedded in them. In order to deeply and accurately To perceive a work of art, we need to know by whom, how and under what circumstances it was created. In the same way, we will truly understand literature as a whole when we know how it was created, shaped and participated in the life of the people.
It is as difficult to imagine Russian history without Russian literature as it is to imagine Russia without Russian nature or without its historical cities and villages. No matter how much the appearance of our cities and villages, architectural monuments and Russian culture as a whole changes, their existence in history is eternal and indestructible" 2.
Without ancient Russian literature there is and could not be the work of A.S. Pushkina, N.V. Gogol, moral quests of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky. Russian medieval literature is the initial stage in the development of Russian literature. She passed on to subsequent art the richest experience of observations and discoveries, as well as literary language. It combined ideological and national characteristics, and created lasting values: chronicles, works of oratory, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” “The Kiev-Pechersk Patericon,” “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom,” “The Tale of Misfortune,” "The Works of Archpriest Avvakum" and many other monuments.
Russian literature is one of the most ancient literatures. Its historical roots date back to the second half of the 10th century. As noted by D.S. Likhachev, of this great millennium, more than seven hundred years belong to the period that is commonly called Old Russian literature.
“Before us is literature that rises above its seven centuries, as a single grandiose whole, as one colossal work, striking us with its subordination to one theme, a single struggle of ideas, contrasts that enter into a unique combination. Old Russian writers are not architects of separate buildings. city planners. They worked on one common grandiose ensemble. They had a remarkable “sense of shoulder”, created cycles, vaults and ensembles of works, which in turn formed a single building of literature...
This is a kind of medieval cathedral, in the construction of which thousands of free masons took part over several centuries..." 3.
Ancient literature is a collection of great historical monuments, created mostly by nameless masters of words. Information about the authors of ancient literature is very scanty. Here are the names of some of them: Nestor, Daniil Zatochnik, Safoniy Ryazanets, Ermolai Erasmus, etc.
The names of the characters in the works are mainly historical: Theodosius of Pechersky, Boris and Gleb, Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh... These people played a significant role in the history of Rus'.
The adoption of Christianity by pagan Russia at the end of the 10th century was an act of the greatest progressive significance. Thanks to Christianity, Rus' joined the advanced culture of Byzantium and entered as an equal Christian sovereign power into the family of European nations, becoming “known and followed” in all corners of the earth, as the first ancient Russian rhetorician 4 and publicist 5 known to us, Metropolitan Hilarion, said in “The Tale of the Law” and Grace" (monument from the mid-11th century).
The emerging and growing monasteries played a major role in the spread of Christian culture. The first schools were created in them, respect and love for books, “book teaching and veneration” were cultivated, book depositories and libraries were created, chronicles were written, and translated collections of moralizing and philosophical works were copied. Here the ideal of a Russian monk-ascetic who devoted himself to serving God, moral improvement, liberation from base, vicious passions, and serving the high idea of civic duty, goodness, justice, and public good was created and surrounded by the aura of a pious legend.
Folk culture.
The culture of Rus' before the Mongol invasion can be divided into culture:
- - Eastern Slavism;
- - Kievan Rus;
- - period of fragmentation.
The culture of the Eastern Slavs was pagan, determined by the cult of nature and had its own characteristic features depending on the location - some for the Dnieper region, others for North-Eastern Rus', and others for the northwestern lands. The pagan Slavs revered dense oak forests, fast rivers, and “sacred” stones. As noted by historian B.A. Rybakov: “It seemed to the ancient Slav that every house in the village was... under the protection of a spirit who looked after the cattle, guarded the fire in the hearth and at night came out from under the stove to feast on the offering left for him by the caring housewife. In each barn, in the mysterious light of an underground fire, the souls of dead ancestors lived. Every living creature that came into contact with man was endowed with special features... When Christianity appeared in Russia, it encountered such a stable agricultural religion that had developed over centuries, with such strong pagan beliefs that it was forced to adapt to them...” Gradual penetration Christianity (especially in economically more developed areas) led to the combination of old traditions of the pagan world with Christian culture. At the same time, remnants of the pagan cultures of the Slavic agricultural tribes have been preserved to this day in embroidery and folk art. They also exist in some surviving signs, beliefs, superstitions, etc.
Monuments of ancient Slavic architecture have not reached us, although we can talk about the widespread use of wooden construction in pagan Rus' (in addition to ordinary dwellings, the Slavs built fortresses, palaces; erected pagan temples, etc.). Pagan idols have not survived to this day either (the exception is the so-called Zbruch idol of the 9th century, found in the Zbruch River, near Gusyatin on the land of the ancient Volynians).
The culture of Kievan Rus was significantly influenced by the traditions of Christian Byzantium. Unfortunately, most of the national heritage of the era of Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise has not survived to this day. This primarily concerns chronicles that were destroyed in the fire of wars and invasions.
As feudal fragmentation intensified in Rus', local cultural and artistic schools began to take shape, which, despite all their originality, retained the culture of Kievan Rus as their basis.
Writing and chronicle writing.
Writing in Rus' was known even before the introduction of Christianity by Prince Vladimir. The treaty between Oleg and Byzantium, concluded in 911, was written in Greek and Slavic. The spread of writing is evidenced by a fragment of a clay vessel discovered by archaeologists during excavations in Gnezdovo near Smolensk, dating back to the beginning of the 10th century, on which is written “gorushna” (i.e., a vessel for spices). Information has also been preserved that letters in Rus' were cut out on wooden tablets and were called rezas. Subsequently, writing on wood was replaced by writing on birch bark. A large number of such birch bark letters were found during excavations in Novgorod. To date, letters have been found in other cities: Smolensk, Moscow, Polotsk, Pskov. The inscriptions on birch bark are varied. Here, for example, is a love letter from the 12th century: “From Mikiti to Ulyaanits. Go get me. I want you, but you want me. And that’s what Ignat Moisiev heard..."
(Nikita asks Ulyanitsa to marry him). Or another entry: “And you, Repeh, listen to Domna” and even hooligan: “Ignorant pisa, not a duma kaza, but hto se cita...” (“The ignoramus wrote, without thinking he showed it, but who reads this...” , That...).
Archaeologists also discovered handicrafts with various inscriptions on them (women signed whorls - clay rings that were put on a spindle; a shoemaker carved the names of his customers on the block). This allows us to question the views that became widespread during the Soviet period, according to which writing appears only in the conditions of a class society, and literacy during this period was the lot of only the nobility.
Slavic literacy - the Slavic alphabet, created by missionary brothers from the Greek city of Thessaloniki - Cyril and Methodius - became widespread in Rus'. The brothers did a lot to educate the Slavic peoples of Europe, including Rus', to spread Christianity and translate liturgical books into the Slavic language. Both of them were canonized by the Orthodox Church.
Scientists believe that Cyril and Methodius created the Glagolitic alphabet (Glagolitic), using ancient Slavic letters to create the alphabet. In turn, the Glagolitic alphabet was soon reworked by them using Greek writing, and the “Cyrillic alphabet” appeared, which we still use today (it was simplified by Peter I and again in 1918).
The introduction of Christianity had a significant impact on the development of culture. Simultaneously with the new faith, an attempt was made to adopt the civil culture of the Greeks and their knowledge in various fields. For this purpose, schools were founded, the children of the best citizens were attracted to study, and even “two copper blockheads and four copper horses” (probably monuments of ancient sculpture) were brought to Kyiv.
Vladimir’s work was continued by Yaroslav, who also created schools. More than three hundred children studied in Kyiv, as evidenced by the source: “A meeting of elders and priests’ children taught 300 books.”
Yaroslav also continued the tradition of building churches and ordered master builders and artists from Greece for this purpose. Yaroslav translated Greek books and founded the first library in Rus'. As the chronicle puts it, Vladimir “looked up and softened” the Russian land, enlightening it with baptism, and his son “sowed bookish words in the hearts of faithful people.” Scribes and translators came to Rus'. Translated books of religious content were read not only in princely and boyar families, in monasteries, but also among merchants and artisans. The biography of Alexander the Great (“Alexandria”) and “The Tale of the Devastation of Jerusalem” became widespread. Josephus, Byzantine chronicles, etc.
The first Russian literati appeared in schools opened at churches, and later at monasteries. At first, children from wealthy families were brought there by order of the princes. Later, schools began to teach not only boys, but also girls.
Evidence of the development of literacy are the inscriptions - graffiti - preserved on the walls of cathedrals. Most of them begin with the words “Lord, help...” (the text of the request followed). Graffiti of the 11th century. on the wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral above the sarcophagus in which Yaroslav was buried, made it possible to establish that the Kyiv princes were called the royal title.
Chronicles are the most valuable historical source. At first they were conceived as weather reports of important events in Rus'. Later they turned into artistic and historical works, becoming a significant phenomenon in the spiritual culture of Rus'. They reflected the authors' views on the history of Rus' and world history, on the activities of princes, and they contained philosophical and religious reflections. Much of what we know today about Ancient Rus' is gleaned from chronicles.
Initially, historical tales about the deeds of princes were recorded. The second chronicle appeared when Yaroslav the Wise united Rus' under his rule. It seemed to sum up the entire historical path of Rus', which ended with the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. At this stage of the creation of Russian chronicles, their peculiarity was revealed: each subsequent chronicle collection included previous narratives. The author of the next chronicle acted as a compiler, editor and ideologist; he gave an appropriate assessment of the events and introduced his own point of view into the text.
Another chronicle collection appeared - “The Tale of Bygone Years,” presumably compiled by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor at the beginning of the 12th century. In this chronicle, Nestor acts as a champion of the unity of the Russian lands and condemns princely civil strife. The sources for the “Tale” were previously written Russian literary monuments, and in some cases translated Byzantine materials. On the pages of the chronicle, beginning with the introduction, which tells about the biblical flood, you can read about the origin of the Slavic tribes, the founding of Kiev, uprisings, murders of princes and boyars, etc. From it we learn about taking
Oleg of Constantinople, Oleg’s tragic death “by horse,” the murder of Igor and Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans, Svyatoslav’s wars, the reign of Vladimir, etc. Weather records begin in 852, when “the nickname Ruska Land began.” Some weather records preserved in the Tale of Bygone Years can presumably be attributed to the end of
X century The first chronicle vaults in Rus' began to be created no later than the first half of the 11th century, but vaults have reached us only from the second half
XI century, and then as part of later texts.
Under Vladimir Monomakh, by his order in 1116, the chronicle of Nestor was rewritten and edited by the abbot Sylvester. The acts of Monomakh and his family were especially emphasized, since those in power even then attached great importance to how they looked on the pages of the chronicle and influenced the work of the chroniclers. Subsequently, the chronicle was edited by an unknown author in 1118 on the orders of the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Mstislav Vladimirovich.
Chronicle collections were also kept in large centers, for example in Novgorod (these materials were also used in the Tale of Bygone Years). With the political collapse of Rus' and the emergence of separate principalities-states, chronicle writing did not stop. In the principalities, chronicles were kept that told about the life of the region and glorified the deeds of local princes. The chroniclers of the Russian principalities necessarily began with the “Tale of Bygone Years” and continued the narrative until the separation of their lands from Kyiv. Then there was a story about local events. The chronicles of each land differ from each other. Entire libraries of chronicles appeared.
Chronicle works were usually named either by the place where they were kept or by the name of the author or scientist who discovered them. The Ipatiev Chronicle is so named because it was discovered in the Ipatiev Monastery near Kostroma. Laurentian Chronicle (1377) - in honor of the monk Laurentius, who wrote it for the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince.
The emergence of Old Russian literature was due to the emergence of centers of writing and literacy. The first literary work of Rus' known to us is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion(40s of the 11th century), the main idea of which was the equality of Rus' with other Christian peoples and states, including Byzantium. In the “Word...” Hilarion outlined his view of the history of Rus', the outstanding role of Christianity in its formation and the role of Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise in the destinies of the Russian state.
In the second half of the 11th century. Other literary and journalistic works also appeared. In “Memory and Praise of Vladimir,” the monk Jacob described the role of Prince Vladimir as a statesman and baptizer of Rus'. Tales about the initial spread of Christianity in Rus' and “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” are dedicated to the history of early Christianity. Lives of Russian saints (primarily Boris and Gleb) became a widespread genre of ancient Russian literature. Written by an unknown author at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century. “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” has come down to us in many copies, the earliest of which dates back to the 12th century.
Other well-known works include: the first Russian memoirs - “Instructions for Children” by Vladimir Monomakh, as well as “The Word” (“Prayer”) Daniil Zatochnik. At the same time, “Hegumen Daniel’s Walk to Holy Places” appeared, which describes in detail the pilgrim’s path to Jerusalem, to the Holy Sepulcher. These travel essays are written in accessible language and feature detailed descriptions of nature, historical places, and interesting encounters, including with the crusaders. Abbot Daniel is considered the founder of the genre of travel essays, which in Rus' were called “walkings.” More than 100 copies of “The Walk of Daniel” have survived to this day.
The Tale of Igor's Campaign, created at the end of the 12th century, is considered the highest achievement of ancient Russian literature. The basis of the narrative is the story of the unsuccessful campaign of Prince Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185. The poem became a story about the courage of the Russians, a call for the unity of the Russian land.
Architecture.
Along with religion, church architecture also came to Rus' from Byzantium. The first Russian churches were built according to the Byzantine model. The type of such a temple is called cross-domed. This is the so-called Greek cross, i.e. a rectangle close to a square, when four, six or more pillars (pillars) in the plan formed a cross, above which a dome rose. The first church built by Prince Vladimir on the hill where the idol of Perun used to stand was the Church of St. Basil in Kyiv. The buildings were wooden (made of oak; carved decorations were often made of linden) or wood-earth. As Russian cities developed and wealth accumulated in society, stone and brick began to be used more and more often in construction. Princely palaces were usually made of stone. Most of the temples are from the 12th - early 13th centuries. single-headed.
One of the first stone structures erected by Greek craftsmen in 989-996 is the five-domed church in honor of the Mother of God in Kyiv, founded by Prince Vladimir and also called the Church of the Tithes. It received this name because church tithes were allocated for its maintenance. It was decorated with mosaics and wall paintings (frescoes). Only the foundation has survived, and even that was covered by later reconstruction. The temple itself was destroyed during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.
St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv was built under Yaroslav the Wise. It contained 25 chapters, 12 of which have now, unfortunately, been lost. The cathedral is replete with frescoes and mosaics.
At the same time, the Golden Gate was erected in Kyiv. With these buildings, the city seemed to emphasize its desire not to be inferior in grandeur to Constantinople. Following the construction of Sofia in Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedrals were built in Novgorod and Polotsk, and the Spassky Cathedral was erected in Chernigov. St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, (construction in 1045-1052), a typical Byzantine church with a dome on four square pillars. Later additions and alterations took away from the cathedral its original Byzantine character, giving it a purely Russian flavor: five gilded domes; white smooth walls without decorations; color painting above the entrance.
The architecture was characterized by intricacy, multi-tiered architecture, and the presence of turrets and towers in the buildings. The residential building was surrounded by various kinds of outbuildings - cages, vestibules, passages, staircases. All wooden structures were decorated with artistic carvings.
With Christianity the construction of large churches came to Rus'. These were the St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv, Novgorod and Polotsk, and the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov. If you look closely at their appearance, you will notice that the traditions of Russian wooden architecture continued in stone architecture.
Remarkable architectural structures were created during the period of political fragmentation of Rus'.
The differences in the character of architecture were mainly due to the building material used in a particular land. In Kyiv, Smolensk, Chernigov, Ryazan they continued to build from plinth (thin brick). In Novgorod, limestone was a common building material, and the distinctive features of the Novgorod architectural style were monumental severity and simplicity of form. At the beginning of the 12th century. Master Peter’s artel worked here, erecting the most famous monuments of Novgorod - the cathedrals in the Antonievsky and Yuryevsky monasteries. He is credited with creating the Church of St. Nicholas on Yaroslav's Courtyard. A remarkable architectural monument was the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, destroyed during the war.
In Vladimir-Suzdal and Galician-Volyn Rus, the main building material was white limestone. A wall of two rows of blocks was erected from it, the gap between which was filled with crushed stone and filled with a binding solution. White stone is very pliable to work with; structures made from it usually had a large number of decorative details and decorations.
The architectural monuments of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' include the cathedrals in Vladimir that have survived to this day, although sometimes in a rebuilt form; the remains of the palace of Prince Andrei in Bogolyubovo - one of the few civil (secular) stone buildings that have partially reached us from pre-Mongol times; Cathedrals of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky.
The main features of the architecture of this land were formed during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky. Under him, a white stone gate was built, which according to ancient tradition was called Golden and was the main entrance to the city. This structure looked like a tetrahedral tower with a high arched opening and a combat platform located under it. In the center of the site was the Church of the Deposition of the Robe of Our Lady. The gates were closed with oak doors, which were bound with gilded copper. Erected in 1158-1160. The main temple of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral - subsequently served as a model for the construction of the Moscow Kremlin Cathedral. Initially, during the time of Andrei Bogolyubsky, it was single-domed, richly decorated with gold. Here was the icon of the Mother of God taken by Andrei, which, under the name of Vladimir, was widely revered in Rus' as miraculous. There was a library at the cathedral, chronicles were kept. The paintings made on its walls two and a half centuries after the construction of the cathedral by the outstanding icon painter of Ancient Rus' - Andrey Rublev. The cathedral became the resting place of Andrei Bogolyubsky, his brother Vsevolod and other members of the princely house. The façade of the cathedral is decorated with heads (masks) of lions; in the interior, at the base of the girth arches, there are paired figures of reclining lions; similar figures can be found in the interior of the Demetrius Cathedral and the Church of the Intercession on Nsrli. Such love for the image of the “king of beasts” in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' is not accidental - this animal had several interpretations at once: the symbol of the evangelist, the symbol of Christ, the personification of power and strength.
According to legend, the foundation of the country residence of Prince Andrei was associated with the cult of the icon of the Vladimir Mother of God. The horses carrying the icon, when turning towards Suzdal, allegedly suddenly stopped and did not want to go further. Then Andrei stopped here for the night and, according to legend, after prayer he saw the Mother of God, who ordered the construction of a monastery on this place (this is where the name of the place comes from - Bogolyubovo).
Located 10 versts from Vladimir, the residence of Prince Andrei was richly decorated. To this day, only one of the towers with a spiral staircase and an arched passage from this tower to the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary has survived from the princely palace (Andrei Bogolyubsky ordered an icon of the Bogolyubov Mother of God for the cathedral, which has survived to this day).
Not far from Bogolyubovo, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), which has survived to this day, was built, located on a small hill among water meadows. The prince ordered its construction after the death of his beloved son Izyaslav, who died very young during a campaign in Volga Bulgaria. At the top of each of the three facades of the church there is a stone carving - the biblical King David with a harp is depicted among lions and birds.
By order of Vsevolod the Big Nest, Russian craftsmen built the Demetrius Cathedral (1194-1197) not far from the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. This was the palace temple of the prince, who was named Dmitry at baptism. The gilded dome was topped with an openwork cross and a weather vane in the form of a dove (a symbol of the Holy Spirit). The temple, richly decorated with stone carvings, displays images of lions, centaurs, leopards, intertwined with intricate patterns. In the central part of all three facades of the temple, the composition with the biblical King David was repeated, and above the left window of the northern wall, Prince Vsevolod is depicted sitting on a throne surrounded by his sons. On the southern façade of the cathedral we find a scene from a medieval legend - “The Ascension of Alexander the Great”, who is lifted up by two lions, which he holds with his raised hands. “The temples (of the Vladimir-Suzdal region) were decorated with the expectation that the crowds of people milling around them on holiday would find both the time and the desire to examine the instructive themes of the external decorations and use them as visual instruction and church teaching,” the researcher wrote N.P. Kondakov. The ancient chronicler saw this cathedral as a “wonderful velma”.
In Suzdal, which was the capital of the principality before the rise of Vladimir, the oldest monument of the city has survived to this day - the white stone Nativity Cathedral (1222-1225), decorated with patterned carvings, standing on the site of two even older churches. In the southern and western vestibules, double doors have been preserved - the “Golden Gates”, made in the 20-30s. XIII century by fire gilding, in which the plate is covered with black varnish, and then the design on it is scratched with a needle and its lines are etched with acid. Next, the lines are filled with an amalgam of thin sheet gold and mercury, which evaporates from the heat that melts the gold. The doors in the western vestibule depict scenes revealing the content of the New Testament and dedicated to religious subjects.
Inside the temple, the walls were decorated with frescoes (painting with water paints on wet plaster) and mosaics. Fresco images of the sons and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise, everyday scenes depicting buffoons, mummers, hunting, etc. preserved in Sofia of Kyiv. Mosaic is an image or pattern made from pieces of stone, marble, ceramics, smalt. In Ancient Rus', mosaic images were made from smalt, a special glassy material. For a long time in ancient Russian art there was a type of image of the Mother of God, which is called “Oranta” (“praying”). Her figure in Sophia of Kyiv is made in mosaic.
Art and folklore.
Painting, sculpture, and music experienced profound changes with the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. Ancient wood and stone carvers used to create sculptures of pagan gods and spirits. There was a famous golden-moustached wooden idol of Perun, which stood next to the palace of Vladimir I. Painters painted the walls of pagan chapels and made magic masks. Pagan art, like the pagan gods, was closely connected with the cult of nature.
Christian art was subordinated to completely different goals. Icons appeared (in Greek - “image”). Just like frescoes and mosaics, the first icons in Rus' were painted by Greek masters. The most revered icon in Rus' was the image of the Mother of God with a baby in her arms, made by an unknown Greek painter at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. She was transferred by Andrei Bogolyubsky from Kyiv to Vladimir, where her name comes from - “Our Lady of Vladimir”. Subsequently, this icon became a kind of symbol of Rus' (it is currently kept in the Tretyakov Gallery). The icons made by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Alimpia resembled portraits of living people. The frescoes and mosaics of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv recreated episodes from the life of the grand ducal family, recalled the activities and amusements of ordinary people, including depicting the dances of buffoons.
Later, individual Russian principalities developed their own directions in art. The Novgorod school of icon painting was distinguished by the reality of the image. In the 13th century The Yaroslavl school of painting became famous, whose artists recreated the faces of the Virgin Mary and saints on icons. Iconography and fresco painting became widespread in Chernigov, Rostov, Suzdal, and Vladimir. The fresco “The Last Judgment” in St. Demetrius Cathedral is striking in its expressiveness. The Greek artist who worked on it skillfully combined the Greek-type figures of the apostles with the Byzantine style of painting some of the figures.
Wood carvings, and later stone carvings, were used to decorate not only temples and homes, but also household utensils. Old Russian jewelers achieved great skill, making bracelets, earrings, buckles, medallions, beads, weapons, dishes, and utensils from gold, silver, precious stones and enamel. The products they made were decorated with chased and engraved patterns. The craftsmen carefully and skillfully created frames for icons and decorated books, which at that time were rare and of great value. One of these books was the Ostromir Gospel, which has survived to this day. It was written in 1056-1057. Deacon Gregory by order of the mayor Ostromira and contains carefully rendered miniature images.
Music was an integral part of Russian art. The Church did not approve of storytellers, singers, guslar players, and dancers and persecuted their activities as an element of pagan entertainment.
An important element of ancient Russian culture was folklore - songs, tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, fairy tales, ditties, fortune telling, conspiracies, jokes, counting rhymes, games. Motherland, christening, caring for a parent and newborn, wedding, feast, funeral - all these events are reflected in songs. The adoption of Christianity affected this side of life as well. If earlier wedding songs talked about the kidnapping of brides, then in the songs of Christian times they talked about the consent of both the bride and her parents to marriage.
The whole world of Russian life is revealed in epics. Their main character is a hero with enormous physical strength and special magical abilities. Each of the heroes of the epics - Ilya Muromets, Volkhv Vseslavich, Dobrynya Nikitich, the youngest of the heroes Alyosha Popovich - had his own character. A number of modern historians and philologists believe that epics reflect specific historical facts and figures, but their opponents argue that the majority of epic heroes are collective characters that combine different chronological layers.
The craft received significant development in those distant times. According to the calculations of Academician B. A. Rybakov, in ancient Russian cities, the number of which was approaching 300 at the time of the Mongol invasion, artisans of more than 60 specialties worked. It is known, for example, that Russian blacksmiths made locks that were famous in Western Europe; these locks consisted of more than 40 parts. Self-sharpening knives, consisting of three metal plates, were in great demand. Russian artisans who cast bells, jewelers, and glassmakers became famous. From the middle of the 10th century. The production of bricks, multi-colored ceramics, wood and leather items was widely developed. The production of weapons received significant development: chain mail, piercing swords, sabers. The production of various jewelry, which included earrings, rings, necklaces, pendants, etc., was also widespread.
The culture of Kievan Rus was formed during the era of the formation of a unified Old Russian. nationality and the formation of a single Russian. lit. language. Huge influence on the cult. Christianity as a whole has had an impact.
Writing. Slav. writing existed at the beginning of the 10th century (a clay vessel with an inscription in Slavic - the end of the 9th century, the treaty of Prince Oleg with Byzantium - 911, the alphabet of Cyril and Methodius). After the adoption of Christianity in the 11th century, literacy spread among princes, boyars, merchants, and wealthy townspeople (the rural population is illiterate). The first schools were opened at churches and monasteries. Yar. The wise one created in Novg. school for children of clergy. Sister Monomakh set up a school for girls in Kyiv.
Literary The most important monument of ancient Russia. cultures are chronicles - weather reports of historical events. 1st chronicle – end of the 10th century – Rurikovich before the introduction of Christianity. 2 – at Yar. Wise, 3 and 4 parts. Metropolitan Hilarion under Prince St. 1113 - The Tale of Bygone Years (monk of the Kiev-Pech. Monastery Nestor). At the beginning of the story he poses the question: “Where did Russ come from? land, who started the reign in Kyiv, and where did the Russian land come from? + “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” and “The Life of Theodosius” by Nestor. In addition to chronicles, there are also other genres. 1049 – “The Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan. Hilarion: glorifies new ideas and concepts of Christianity, Rus', the Russian people, princes. At the end of the 11th century - “Instructions for Children” by Vl. Monomakh, the main goal is the need to fight the princes. interstitial "A Word about Regiment I." - a story about the campaign of Prince Igor Sv-cha in 1185 against the Polovtsians.
Architecture. Until the 10th century in Rus' they built from wood; arch. style - turrets, towers, tiers, passages, carvings - passed into the stone architecture of Christ. time. They began to build stone temples according to the Byzantine model. The earliest building in Kyiv - the end of the 10th century - is the Church of the Virgin Mary - Tithes. At Yar. Wisely - the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral is a symbol of the power of Kievan Rus: 13 domes, pink brick walls, decorated inside with frescoes and mosaics, many icons. In the 12th century, single-domed churches were built: Dmitrovsky and Assumption in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. New fortresses, stone palaces, and chambers of rich people were founded in Chernigov, Galich, Pskov, and Suzdal.
Iconography. The oldest icon of the “Vladimir Mother of God” that has come down to us. “Deesis” (prayer) - late 12th century, “Golden Haired Angel”, “Assumption of the Virgin Mary”, “Savior Not Made by Hands” - all 12th century.
Art. Wood, stone, bone carving. Jewelry craftsmanship: filigree, filigree (both - wire pattern), granulation (silver and gold balls - ornament). Embossing and art. weapon finishing.
Folk art reflected in Russian folklore: conspiracies, spells, proverbs, riddles (all connected with agriculture and the life of the Slavs), wedding songs, funeral lamentations. A special place is occupied by epics, especially the Kyiv heroic cycle (heroes: Prince Vl. Red Sun, heroes).
Music. The oldest genre is ritual and work songs, “old songs”. Instruments: tambourines, harps, trumpets, horns. Buffoons - singers, dancers, acrobats - performed on the squares, there was a folk puppet theater, accordion singers - storytellers and "old-time" singers.
Life. People lived in cities (20 - 30 thousand people), villages (50 people), villages (25-40 people). Housing: estate, log house. log house In Kyiv: palaces, cathedrals, mansions of boyars, rich merchants, spirit houses. Leisure: falconry, hawk hunting, hound hunting (for the rich); horse racing, fist fights, games (for commoners). Cloth. Male: shirt, pants, tucked in. in boots, women: floor-length shirt with embroidery and long sleeves. Goal. attire: prince - hat with bright material, female. – headscarf (married – towel), peasants, townspeople – fur or wicker hats. Upper o.: a cape made of linen fabric, the princes wore barmas (chains made of silver or gold medallions with enamel decorations) around their necks. Food: bread, meat, fish, vegetables; drank kvass, honey, wine.
Culture (translated from Latin - cultivation, processing) - all material and spiritual values that are created by the physical and mental labor of people (humanity). Cultural phenomena should be distinguished from natural phenomena. Material culture usually means technology, tools, machines, homes, household items, i.e. the totality of means of production and material goods created by human labor at each stage of social development. Spiritual culture includes education, science, literature, folk art, and art.
Even before the adoption of Christianity, the East Slavic tribes had a developed culture. Material culture was associated with basic occupations and included tools for labor and processing of raw products, technologies for the production and preservation of various products and products. Wooden construction (houses, fortifications, passages and bridges over rivers) was supplemented by the production of many wooden products. Oral folk art was associated with pagan religion and the everyday sphere.
The adoption of Christianity in 988 enriched Russian culture.
In the XI-XII centuries. appeared: chronicles (“The Tale of Bygone Years”, Pskov, Ipatiev, Lavrentiev and other chronicles); translated books; original ancient Russian literature, mainly lives and teachings (“The Tale of Law and Grace”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Prayer of Daniil the Zatochnik”, “The Teaching of Monomakh to Children”, etc.). Writing (“Cyrillic”) became widespread, which was reflected in inscriptions on dishes, handicrafts, on the walls of cathedrals (graffiti), and in birch bark letters. The first schools appeared at princely courts and monasteries. Children were also taught privately at home. Monasteries were important centers of culture and education.
After 988, stone, mainly temple, architecture appeared. The twenty-five-domed Church of the Tithes was built in Kiev, St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kiev, Novgorod and Polotsk, the Assumption and Dmitrov Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and others, most of which have survived to this day. During construction, a cross-domed structure, an altar, apses, and other new elements were used. Cathedrals were decorated with icons, frescoes, and mosaics. During the service, church hymns appeared.
Works of art were products of some artisans - jewelers, gunsmiths, potters, etc. Their products were exported along with furs, honey, and other goods.
With the adoption of Christianity, the family became monogamous. Polygamy and concubinage were prohibited. Fathers' responsibility for raising children and the material well-being of the family has increased, but women's dependence on men has increased. When drawing up the body of Russian legislation - the Russian Truth (the first half of the 11th century) - not only common law and princely decisions (precedents), but also Byzantine canon law and the norms of international treaties were widely used. The church had a special status and jurisdiction.
The Christianization of Russian culture and Russian consciousness continued for a long time. Some pagan, pre-Christian customs and rituals have survived to this day (for example, saying goodbye to winter, caroling at Christmas, etc.). Slavic paganism and Orthodoxy were guided by the same moral criteria. But religious content implied different areas of activity. Christianity regulated mainly social relations, and paganism regulated the relationship between man and nature.
Ancient Rus' in its heyday was a single ancient Russian state with a single ancient Russian language, a single ancient Russian culture.
But the degree of cultural unity was not high enough. The cultural and everyday sphere of various territories of the vast East European Plain had its own characteristics. During the period of feudal fragmentation, appanage princes saw culture as a way to assert their own superiority and satisfy personal ambitions. Local chronicles depicted events from the perspective of a local prince. The development of local icon-painting, architectural, craft and other “schools” with special features was encouraged.
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