Soils of Great Britain briefly. Animals of Great Britain. Flora and fauna of Great Britain. UK fauna

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4. Soil resources.

The most fertile soils in Great Britain are found in the warm and relatively dry south-east, where they are formed mainly on calcareous rocks. Relatively high summer temperatures here contribute to increased biological activity and the accumulation of humus in the top layer of soil. Initially, this entire area was covered with broad-leaved forests, under which brown forest soils formed. Currently, the soils are highly cultivated as a result of long-term use for crops of barley, wheat and sugar beets, as well as grasses. In the marshy coastal lowlands - marshes - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation, brown forest podzolized soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures. In the drained maritime lowlands of the Fenland, as well as in the Trent River valley, fairly fertile peaty alluvial soils are common. In these areas, more than in other regions of the country, wheat is sown, gardens and berry fields are planted, and intensive gardening is practiced. On the hills and cuesta ridges, thin humus-carbonate and soddy-carbonate soils are developed. The western and north-western regions of Great Britain are dominated by acidic brown podzolic soils. These lands are used for grass growing and as natural pastures. The main grain crop grown here is barley. In the mountainous regions of Cornwall, the Pennines, the Circle of Lakes and Scotland, where the climate is damp and cool, soddy-podzolic soils are developed, which are easily subject to waterlogging, leading to the formation of peat bogs. It is dominated by pastures with coarse grass.

5. Land resources. Flora. Fauna.

People uprooted forests, drained swamps, changed the species composition of flora and fauna, and added large amounts of fertilizer to the soil. Forest planting is currently being carried out across the country. Exotic tree species (Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, fine-scaled larch) were imported from other countries and widespread. Forests currently cover just 10% of the UK's area. They are mainly preserved along river valleys and in the lower parts of mountain slopes. In the lower mountain belt of England and Wales grow oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash. In the north of Scotland in the Grampian Mountains and the North-West Highlands, the lower belt of the mountains is occupied by mixed oak-spruce-pine forests, and pine and birch forests are common higher up. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m. These are the lowest values for all of Eurasia, due to strong moisture and the impact of livestock grazing.

The natural perennial meadows of England and Wales contain wild daffodils (the emblem of the Welsh), lilies, purple orchis and primroses, which have long been used to make wine in English villages. Above the forest line in the mountains of England and Wales, cereal-forb meadows and heathland with juniper, blueberry and crowberry predominate.

Many large mammals, such as bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been extirpated from the British Isles as a result of intensive hunting, and the wolf has been eradicated as a pest. Today there are only 56 species of mammals left, 13 of which are introduced. The largest representative of mammals, the red deer, lives in the highlands of Cornwall, in the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. The gray seal is found off the islands and coastal cliffs of Cornwall and Wales, while the common seal prefers the coasts of Scotland, the eastern coast of Northern Ireland and the surrounding islands. There are no large predatory animals in Great Britain. Throughout the country, except in the highlands, foxes and badgers are found on the edges of forests and in groves. The otter is widespread and intensively hunted. Of the small predators, the most numerous are ermine and weasel; ferrets are found in Wales, and European wild cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

The British Isles are home to 130 bird species, including many songbirds. The national symbol of England is the Red-breasted Zyryanka. Millions of birds migrate along the coast of Great Britain from south to north and back.

Due to extensive work on the implementation of marshes in the country, the population of ducks, geese and other waterfowl has significantly decreased. Therefore, in recent years, special territories have been allocated for the protection and breeding of these species. The organization of nature reserves and reserves contributed to a significant change in the animal world of the British Isles.

The waters off the British Isles are home to various types of fish: sablefish are found in the surface layers of sea waters, herring abound from May to October, sprat feed in the bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Cornish Peninsula. The most important commercial fish from distant and near waters are cod, haddock and marlan.

The problem of land resources is very acute in the UK. In England and Wales, it is estimated that around 2.5 million hectares of agricultural land will be used for other purposes by the end of the century. During the development of mineral resources, as many landscapes will be destroyed as in the previous two centuries; the most serious enemy of natural landscapes is sand and gravel quarries. They cause more damage to the area than coal mining.

There is very little land suitable for agriculture in the country, which is why there is a special category of “protected” areas. In such places, new construction is limited or prohibited. Protected areas include green belts around major cities and conurbations, nature reserves, animal reserves, forested national parks, scenic areas, fertile agricultural land, coastal paths and mountain slopes above 250 m above sea level. Counts 1 3 1 reserve for separately protected representatives of flora and fauna. In England and Wales, 10 national parks have been created with a total area of about 12 thousand square meters. km.

The flora and fauna of this territory is quite rich, with extremely rare representatives.

POPULATION.

Ethnic composition of the population.

The ethnic composition of the UK population is quite diverse. From the earliest periods of the history of the British Isles, there was a process of formation of three different ethnic communities - the English, the Scots and the Welsh, or Welsh, who occupied three historically separate areas of the island of Great Britain - England proper, Scotland and Wales. The relationship between these three indigenous peoples of the island and the ethnic processes that took place among them have always occupied an important place in the political history of the country. The national question has not yet been resolved even today.

English

The dominant and largest group of the UK population. They inhabit England, most of Wales and form compact settlements in some areas of southern Scotland. English is part of the northwestern group of Germanic languages.

Scots.

The most numerous Celtic people in Great Britain. They inhabit mainly the northwestern regions of the island of Great Britain and the Shetland, Orkney and Hebrides islands adjacent to their coast. A special national Scottish language also emerged, the basis for which was one of the northern dialects of the Anglo-Saxon language.

Due to geographical and economic isolation among the Scots, a distinctive ethnic group living in the mountains of the northwestern part of the island still retains its identity and many specific ethnic features. They call themselves Gauls, while the British more often call them Highlanders (highlanders).

Scotland retains its legal system, which is based on Roman law rather than on a body of precedent as in England. Scotland also has its own education system: Scottish universities study for 4 years, and English ones for 3. The administrative and cultural center of Scotland is Edinburgh, and its industrial heart is Glasgow. There is a Scottish National Party in the country, which fights for independence within the European Community and the need for its own parliament in Edinburgh. Although the Scottish pound is fully equivalent to the English pound, it is not formally used in England and Wales, but is readily accepted there. The national clothing of the Scots is skirts called "kilts", the national instrument is the bagpipe. But they only appear in such clothes on holidays. The national symbol is the thistle.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or Great Britain is a sovereign state located off the north-eastern coast of continental Europe. It occupies the island of Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales), one sixth of the island of Ireland (Northern Ireland), as well as many nearby small islands. The main territory of the country is located between 49°N. and 59°N. (Shetland Islands are located near 61°N latitude) and 8°W longitude. and 2°E. Greenwich Observatory, located in southeast London, is the origin of geographic longitude; the prime meridian passes through it.

Great Britain is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. The minimum distance to Europe is 35 km. The country is separated from France by the English Channel and Pas de Calais. Northern Ireland has a 360 km land border with the Republic of Ireland. A tunnel has been built between the UK and France under the Pas de Calais Strait. Great Britain, which includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and a number of nearby small islands, has an area of 243,610 square meters. km. The area of England, the largest country within Great Britain, is 130,410 square meters. km, the area of Scotland is 78,772 sq. km. Wales and Northern Ireland are significantly smaller in area - 20,758 sq. km and 13,843 sq. km respectively.

Relief of Great Britain

Based on the relief features, the territory of the United Kingdom can be divided into two main areas. The Highlands of Britain (including Northern Ireland), located in the north and west of the country, are underlain by resistant ancient bedrock and consist mostly of highly dissected uplands and much less widespread lowlands. To the south and east lies Low Britain, characterized by rolling terrain, low elevations and several mountainous areas; younger sedimentary rocks lie at its base. In a south-west direction from Newcastle at the mouth of the Tyne River to Exeter at the mouth of the Exe River in south Devon there is a border between High and Low Britain. This boundary is not always clearly defined, and often the transitions between High and Low Britain are smoothed out.

At the base of the mountains throughout Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales lie Lower Paleozoic folded structures, and in southern Wales and southern Cornwall - Hercynian ones. These ancient mountain structures were subjected to intense erosion and destruction for a long time, which led to the leveling of their surface.

As a result of recent uplifts, which occurred in several stages and were accompanied by discontinuous movements, the mountains were fragmented into a number of massifs and acquired a mosaic structure. Leveled surfaces of different heights are very characteristic. The tops of mountains often have a flattened shape. The UK's mountains are relatively easy to access, with numerous roads along low watersheds and wide passes.

UK statistics
(as of 2012)

Quaternary glaciation intensified the smoothing of the mountains, as a result, in the most elevated areas, an alpine-type relief with sharp jagged ridges and peaks, glacial cirques and typical valleys was formed. Erosion processes, which are actively occurring at the present time, played a significant role in modeling the relief. In many lowland areas, erosion has severely, and in some places completely, erased glacial-accumulative landforms formed during the era when ice sheets descended from the mountains to the plains. It is known that, for example, during the maximum glaciation, ice approached the Thames Valley, but the extreme south of England was never covered with ice.

UK climate

The climate of Great Britain, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, is temperate oceanic, humid, with mild winters and cool summers, strong winds and fogs. Thanks to the North Atlantic Current and warm winds blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean, the UK tends to have mild winters.

But these same winds explain cloudy weather, frequent rain and fog. The average annual temperature is about 11°C in the south and about 9°C in the northeast. The average July temperature in London is about 18°C, the average January temperature is about 4.5°C. The average annual precipitation (the heaviest rain occurs in October) is about 760 mm. The coldest region in the UK is Scotland, although the climate there is generally quite mild. The average January temperature is about 3°C, and snow often falls in the mountains in the north. The average July temperature is about 15° C. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the west of the Highlands region (about 3810 mm per year), the least in some eastern regions (about 635 mm per year).

The climate of Wales, like that of England, is mild and humid. The average January temperature is about 5.5° C. The average July temperature is about 15.5° C. The average annual precipitation is approximately 762 mm in the central coastal region and more than 2540 mm in the Snowdon massif. Northern Ireland has a mild and humid climate. The average annual temperature is about 10°C (about 14.5°C in July and about 4.5°C in January). Precipitation in the north often exceeds 1016 mm per year, while in the south it is about 760 mm per year.

The main reasons for the increased rainfall in the UK are the presence of an area of low pressure that extends across the Atlantic Ocean to the east; southwesterly winds prevailing throughout the year; and the fact that most of the mountains are in the west of the country. Frosty weather sets in for a long time with the invasion of cold air from the east and northeast.

Snow falls throughout the country, but very unevenly. In the mountainous regions of Scotland, snow cover lasts for at least 1-1.5 months. In the south of England and, especially in its southwest, snow falls very rarely and lasts no more than a week. Here the grass is green all year round. The west of Britain typically receives twice as much rainfall in winter as in summer. In the eastern regions, winter is colder and less humid.

The weather in the British Isles has become notoriously variable and treacherous due to these climatic conditions. At these latitudes, summer days are long and winter days are very short. Even on the long days of July, the southern coast receives only seven hours of sunshine on average, while the northern part of the country receives less than five hours a day. The lack of sunlight is due to increased cloud cover, and not due to fog, as is commonly believed. London's famous fogs in the past were due to thick smoke from burning coal for heating purposes, rather than due to meteorological conditions. However, damp, damp fog still occurs in London on average 45 days a year, predominantly in January and February, and most ports experience between 15 and 30 foggy days each year, with fog able to paralyze all traffic for a couple of days or more .

Meteorologists often get their predictions wrong, which is why British people often hear the vague word "variable" or "unsettled" in weather forecasts. Unpredictable weather has long been a national treasure of the British, a topic of daily conversation, and for some, a determining factor in the character of the nation. Brits tend to think they live in a milder climate than they actually do, but many escape abroad in both summer and winter.

UK water resources

Great Britain is rich in water resources. Almost throughout the entire territory of the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of deep rivers is developed. The largest of them are the Severn, with a length of 354 km, and the Thames, 338 km long, the basins of which border each other. The Thames is of greatest importance to the UK economy. Its basin is home to 1/5 of the country's total population.

There are many rivers, they are short, but they come close to each other and, with low watersheds, they are easily connected by canals, which at one time made it possible to create on their basis a dense network of waterways, which were widely used before the development of railway transport, and now more for sporting purposes. The importance of river estuaries that extend far into the land, as well as the generally large ruggedness of the coastline, is very important. This allowed for the creation of many ports; some have grown into large industrial hubs. For an island country, good accessibility to maritime transport is especially important.

The rivers of the lowland part of the country are calm. In the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales, the sources of the rivers are at significant altitudes, so the rivers flow quickly and often overflow their banks, especially in the rainy season. The fast-flowing rivers of north-west Scotland and Wales are used to generate electricity. More than 60 hydroelectric power stations have been built here.

The estuaries of the largest rivers in Great Britain - the Thames, Severn, Humber, Mersey, Clyde and Forth - are wide, artificially deepened and straightened bays. They are home to the largest seaports and industrial hubs. At high tide, salt water penetrates estuaries far upstream, so the population of most seaports is supplied with drinking water from headwaters of rivers, underground reservoirs and mountain lakes.

The largest lakes in Great Britain are Loch Tay (about 400 sq. km) in northern Ireland, as well as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness in Scotland. The numerous lakes of the Scottish Highlands and the Circle of Lakes are very picturesque and attract many tourists. They serve as a flow regulator and are used as local transport routes. Thus, Loch Ness and Loch Lomond, located in the Great Glen and connected by a canal, form a direct waterway between the east and west coasts of Scotland. The Circle of Lakes has long been a supplier of fresh water to Manchester, which receives it through two aqueducts more than 100 km long. In the lowland parts of Great Britain there are many artificial reservoirs created on the site of former peat mining, sand and gravel quarries.

Underground reservoirs have long been the main source of high-quality water for the population of lowland England. Currently, underground reservoirs supply 2/5 of all water consumed in England and Wales. In addition to natural waterways, significant work was carried out to improve access to seaports, particularly dredging of the lower Clyde and Mersey, and a wide network of canals was built, especially in England between the north Midlands and the Thames Valley. The Caledonian Canal connects Inverness and Fort William in the Great Glen, and another canal links the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth in Scotland. In England, canals were built between the rivers Dee and Mersey, Mersey and Aire, Trent and Mersey, Avon (a tributary of the Severn) and Welland and the Thames and Severn.

UK soils

Podzolic and brown forest soils are widespread in the country's soil cover, and humus-carbonate soils are found on limestones. In terms of mechanical composition, clayey and loamy soils predominate. Due to the abundance of precipitation, the soils are highly leached. In general, the soils of Great Britain have long been cultivated and produce high yields.

In the swampy coastal lowlands - marshes - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation, podzolized brown forest soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures. Fertile, peaty alluvial soils are common in the drained maritime lowlands of the Fenland, as well as in the Trent Valley.

Here, more than in other regions of the country, they sow wheat, plant orchards and berry fields, and engage in intensive gardening. On the hills and cuesta ridges, thin humus-carbonate and soddy-carbonate soils are developed. In the western and northwestern regions of Great Britain, acidic brown podzolic soils predominate; grasses grow better here, and among grains - oats and barley, which determines livestock specialization. In the mountainous regions of Cornwall, the Pennines, the Circle of Lakes and Scotland, where the climate is damp and cool, soddy-podzolic soils are developed, which are easily subject to waterlogging, leading to the formation of peat bogs. It is dominated by pastures with coarse grass.

UK Minerals

Great Britain has significant mineral reserves. It is especially rich in coal, the total reserves of which are 189 billion tons, including recoverable reserves of 45 billion tons. Its deposits are found in all economic regions of the country, except for the three southern and Northern Ireland. The largest are concentrated in three coal basins: Yorkshire and Northumberland-Durham, located in the foothills of the Pennines, and South Wales, on the southern slope of the Welsh Mountains. Many coal basins were close to the sea coast, and coal could be easily transported. Currently, the role of hard coal is no longer so great, its production has decreased, the best seams have been exhausted, and the use of deep mines has become unprofitable.

In the 60–70s, new large energy resources were discovered on the North Sea shelf - oil and natural gas. The deposits are located off the coast of southeast England and northeast Scotland. Oil reserves – 2 billion tons, natural gas – 2 trillion. m3. Their intensive development has changed the overall assessment of the UK's energy supply and placed it in a more favorable position compared to its EU partners. The largest offshore fields are Fortis and Brent, and on the mainland - Witchfarm in Dorset. The main coal deposits (substantially depleted) are Yorkshire - Derby - Nottinghamshire basin in the eastern Midlands, Northumberland - Durham basin in northeast England.

The UK also has significant reserves of iron ore (reliable and probable - 4.6 billion tons). The main deposit is in the east of Northamptonshire, but, with the exception of the now mined rich Cumberland hematite ores, most of the rest are of low quality (22–33% metal). Currently, mining has ceased; the industry uses rich imported ore. As for other minerals, there is a large deposit of kaolin in Cornwall, also rock salt in Cheshire and Durham, potash in Yorkshire and in very small quantities some non-ferrous metals (including tin in the west of Cornwall). Uranium ores were found in Scotland.

Flora of Great Britain

England's vegetation is rather poor; forests occupy less than 10% of the region's territory. They are mainly preserved along river valleys and in the lower parts of mountain slopes. In Scotland, woodland is more common, although the region is dominated by moorland. The forests in the southern and eastern Highlands are primarily composed of oak and coniferous trees (spruce, pine and larch). In the lower mountain belt of England and Wales grow oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and deciduous forests usually do not rise above 400 m.

The perennial meadows of England and Wales are home to wild daffodils (the emblem of the Welsh), lilies, purple orchis and primroses, which have long been used to make wine in English villages. Above the forest line in the mountains of England and Wales, cereal-forb meadows and heathland with juniper, blueberry and crowberry predominate. In the south of the country, evergreen Mediterranean plant species are found. Plants grow all year round.

UK fauna

Many large mammals, such as bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been hunted to extinction in the British Isles, and the wolf has been eradicated as a pest. Today there are only 56 species of mammals left. The red deer, the largest mammal, lives in the highlands of Cornwall and the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. Among the small mammals there are hare, rabbit, marten, otter, wild cat, a large number of partridges and wild ducks. Of the small predators, the most numerous are ermine and weasel; ferrets are found in Wales, and European wild cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

There are many salmon and trout in the rivers and lakes of Scotland. Cod, herring, and haddock are caught in coastal waters. The fauna is almost the same as in England, with the exception of the black ferret and marten, which are not found in England. Various types of fish are found in the waters off the British Isles: in the surface layers of sea waters - sablefish and herring; sprat feed in the bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Kirkwall Peninsula. The most important commercial fish from distant and near waters are cod, haddock and marlan. Some cod weigh up to 20 kilograms. Also in rivers and lakes there are roach, chub, and barbel. The famous monster of Loch Ness, which could supposedly be a relict aquatic dinosaur, is most likely a fiction invented to attract tourists and various types of business.

The gray seal is found off the islands and coastal cliffs of Cornwall and Wales, while the common seal prefers the coasts of Scotland, the eastern coast of Northern Ireland and the surrounding islands.

More than 200 species of birds can be seen in England, more than half of which come from other countries. The British Isles are home to 130 bird species, including many songbirds. Many species are able to adapt to changing conditions, and it is believed that there are more birds in suburban gardens than in any forest. The most common species are sparrows, finches, starlings, crows, kingfishers, robins, and tits. The national symbol of England is the red-breasted robin. Millions of birds migrate along the coast of Great Britain from south to north and back.

Natural resources

In general, the lowland areas of England have long been widely used for settlement and agricultural development. Somewhat later, mountainous areas began to be developed, where rich pasture lands, and subsequently mineral resources, served as an important incentive for this.

During the complex geological history of the islands, a variety of minerals were formed in their depths. Almost all known minerals, except diamonds, were found there. Coal deposits are especially rich in the Penines, in the Scottish Lowlands, in the foothills of southern Wales, whose industrial reserves amount to 4 billion tons. The largest deposit of iron ore is in the East Midlands: 60% of all reserves are concentrated here. Significant reserves of rock and potash salts have been discovered in Cheshire and Durham.

Lead-zinc and hematite ores were found in the Cambedlen massif, and lead-zinc and tin ores were found in Cornwall. Much hope is placed on North Sea oil and gas, whose total reserves are 2.6 billion tons and 1,400 billion cubic meters, respectively. m.

There are not so many valuable natural resources in the UK. The once all-important iron ore production has now dropped to virtually nothing. Other economically important fossil ores include lead, whose extraction only supplies half of the economy's needs, and zinc. Quite a lot of other resources. For example, chalk, lime, clay, sand, gypsum.

On the other hand, the UK has greater reserves of energy resources, including oil, natural gas and coal, than any country in the European Community. Once a vital source of energy, coal continues to lose its importance. If we compare coal production in 1913, when more than 300 million tons of coal were produced by more than one million workers, with today, coal production has fallen by more than three times, with an even greater decline in the level of workers employed in the mining industry. Power plants still consume large quantities of coal, but with increasing competition from alternative fuels, coal production remains in a difficult situation.

The discovery of oil deposits in the North Sea led to the rapid development of the oil industry. Since operations began in 1975, the amount of oil produced each year has increased every year, making the UK virtually self-sufficient in oil consumption, and even an oil exporter. With an average production level of 2.6 million barrels per day, the UK ranks sixth in the world as an oil producer. Oil reserves in Great Britain reach 770 million tons.

With the start of natural gas production in 1967, coal was gradually replaced by gas in cities, and gas pipelines were built throughout the country. Natural gas reserves are estimated at 22.7 trillion cubic feet.

The soil

The most fertile soils in Great Britain are found in the warm and relatively dry south-east, where they are formed mainly on calcareous rocks. Relatively high summer temperatures here contribute to increased biological activity and the accumulation of humus in the top layer of soil. Initially, this entire area was covered with broad-leaved forests, under which brown forest soils formed. Currently, the soils are highly cultivated as a result of long-term use for crops of barley, wheat and sugar beets, as well as grasses. In the marshy coastal lowlands - marshes - and in some other flat areas of England that have undergone reclamation, brown forest podzolized soils have been preserved under natural and perennial pastures. Quite fertile peaty alluvial soils are common in the drained maritime lowlands of the Fenland, as well as in the Trend River valley. In these areas, more than in other regions of the country, wheat is sown, gardens and berry fields are planted, and intensive gardening is practiced. On the hills and cuesta ridges, thin humus-carbonate and soddy-carbonate soils are developed. The western and north-western regions of Great Britain are dominated by acidic brown podzolic soils. These lands are used for grass growing and as natural pastures. The main grain crop grown here is barley. In the mountainous regions of Cornwall, the Pennines, the Circle of Lakes and Scotland, where the climate is damp and cool, soddy-podzolic soils are developed, which are easily subject to waterlogging, leading to the formation of peat bogs. It is dominated by pastures with coarse grass.

Nature

People uprooted forests, drained swamps, changed the species composition of flora and fauna, and added large amounts of fertilizer to the soil. The country is currently undergoing afforestation. Exotic tree species (Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, fine-scaled larch) were imported from other countries and widespread. Forests currently cover just 10% of the UK's area. They are mainly preserved along river valleys and in the lower parts of mountain slopes. In the lower mountain belt of England and Wales grow oak, elm, hornbeam, beech and ash. In the north of Scotland in the Grampian Mountains and the North-West Highlands, the lower belt of the mountains is occupied by mixed oak-spruce-pine forests, and higher up there are pine and birch forests. The upper limit of the forest reaches 500-600 m, and broad-leaved forests usually do not rise above 400 m. These are the lowest values for all of Eurasia, due to strong moisture and the impact of livestock grazing.

The natural perennial meadows of England and Wales contain wild daffodils (an emblem of the Welsh), lilies, purple orchis and primroses, which have long been used to make wine in English villages. Above the forest line in the mountains of England and Wales, cereal-forb meadows and heathland with juniper, blueberry and crowberry predominate.

Many large mammals, such as bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been hunted to extinction in the British Isles, and the wolf has been eradicated as a pest. Today there are only 56 species of mammals left, 13 of which are introduced. The largest representative of mammals, the red deer lives in the heights of Cornwall, in the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. The gray seal is found off the islands and coastal cliffs of Cornwall and Wales, while the common seal prefers the coasts of Scotland, the eastern coast of Northern Ireland and the surrounding islands. There are no large predatory animals in Great Britain. Throughout the country, except in the highlands, foxes and badgers are found on the edges of forests and in groves. The otter is widespread and intensively hunted. Of the small predators, the most numerous are ermine and weasel; ferrets are found in Wales, and European wild cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

The British Isles are home to 130 bird species, including many songbirds. The national symbol of England is the Red-breasted Robin. Millions of birds migrate along the coast of Great Britain from south to north and back.

Due to extensive work on the implementation of marshes in the country, the population of ducks, geese and other waterfowl has significantly decreased. Therefore, in recent years, special territories have been allocated for the protection and breeding of these species. The organization of nature reserves contributed to a significant change in the animal world of the British Isles.

In the waters off the British Isles, there are various types of fish: sablefish are found in the surface layers of sea waters, herring abound here from May to October, sprat feed in the bays and estuaries of rivers, and sardines and mackerel appear off the coast of the Cornish Peninsula. The most important commercial fish from distant and near waters are cod, haddock and whiting.

It was not the comfort of smoke-shrouded cities during the Industrial Revolution that made the British appreciate and protect the rural landscape. In the British Isles it is not uncommon to find hedges, “English” gardens, and nurseries for the development of ornamental trees, shrubs and flowers. In the UK there is a special category of “protected” areas. In such places, new construction is limited or prohibited. Protected areas include green belts around major cities and conurbations, nature reserves, animal reserves, national forest parks, scenic areas, fertile agricultural land, coastal paths and mountain slopes above 250 m above sea level. There are 131 reserves for separately protected species of flora and fauna. In England and Wales, 10 national parks have been created with a total area of about 12 thousand square meters. km.

The problem of combating environmental pollution, especially in cities, has become increasingly acute. We are concerned about the level of environmental pollution, especially in cities. We are concerned about the level of air pollution, and the question arises of how to annually eliminate 20 million different types of waste.

The problem of land resources is very acute. In England and Wales, it is estimated that around 2.5 million hectares of agricultural land will be used for other purposes by the end of the century. During the development of mineral resources, as many landscapes will be destroyed as in the previous two centuries; the most serious enemy of natural landscapes is sand and gravel quarries. They cause more damage to the area than coal mining.

Relief

The natural features of Great Britain are in many ways similar to neighboring countries of Western Europe. This is not surprising, since the British Isles, located within the shelf, separated from the mainland only in recent geological time. The coastline of the North Sea and the English Channel took on shapes close to modern ones just a few thousand years ago.

The island position of Great Britain, the proximity of the warm North Atlantic Current, and the strongly dissected coastline, nevertheless, left a certain imprint on the nature of this country. This is reflected in the predominance of moderate temperatures, increased humidity, an unusual abundance of surface water, and the spread of deciduous forests and heathlands.

Great Britain is clearly divided into two parts according to its surface structure. A line passing through the cities of Newcastle, Sheffield and Bristol to Lyme Bay separates the mountainous north-west from the flat and hilly ridge south-east. In general, mountainous areas occupy a slightly larger area and have a rather complex geological structure.

At the base of the mountains throughout Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales lie Lower Paleozoic folded structures, and in the south of Wales and south Cornwall - geocinthic ones. These ancient mountain structures were subjected to intense erosion and destruction for a long time, which led to the leveling of their surface. In the Alpine era, uplifts contributed to the revival of the medium-high mountains of Great Britain, and due to the unevenness of these uplifts, the western parts of the mountains turned out to be significantly higher than the eastern ones.

Such orographic asymmetry is, as a rule, inherent in all mountain structures in Great Britain, and accordingly the main watershed is shifted towards the west coast. The western steep and steep shores differ sharply from the gently sloping low-lying shores that predominate in the east of the country.

The newest uplifts occurred in several stages and were accompanied by discontinuous movements, and in some places, for example in Northern Ireland, in the north-west of Scotland, and ruptures of basalt layers. As a result, the mountains were fragmented into a number of massifs and acquired a mosaic structure. Leveled surfaces of different heights are very characteristic. The tops of mountains often have a flattened shape. The UK's mountains are relatively easy to access, with numerous roads along low watersheds and wide passes.

The Quaternary glaciation generally intensified the smoothing of the mountains of Great Britain, and only in the most elevated areas did Alpine-type relief form with sharp jagged ridges and peaks, glacial cirques and typical valleys. A significant role in modeling the relief was played by erosive processes that are actively occurring at the present time. In many lowland areas, erosion has severely, and in some places completely, erased glacial-accumulative landforms formed during the era when ice sheets descended from the mountains to the plains. It is known that, for example, during the maximum glaciation, ice approached the Thames Valley, but the extreme south of England was never covered with ice.

The northern, most elevated part of Great Britain is occupied by the Scottish Highlands, which rise steeply to the west. To the east, the highlands gradually decrease and are replaced by coastal lowlands. The deep and narrow linear depression of Glen Mawr forms the boundary of large parts of the North Scottish Highlands - the North West Highlands and the Gramnan Mountains, with the majestic peak of Ben Nevis (1343) the highest point of the entire country.

The Grampian Mountains drop steeply into a vast depression occupied by the mid-Scottish lowlands, the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. The thick layer of sedimentary rocks filling the depression contains productive horizons of Devonian coals, which are very intensively mined here. The Southern Scottish Highlands have a highly dissected topography. The average heights are about 600 m, and the highest point, Mount Merrick, reaches 842 m. The administrative border of England and Scotland runs along the Cheviot ridge.

In the north of England, the Pennine Mountains extend in the meridian direction, rising on average 700 m, and composed of Carboniferous sedimentary rocks. Karst is widespread in their northern limestone part. Here is also the highest point of the Pieniny - Mount Cross Fell (893 m). At the foot of the Pieniny Mountains, rich productive strata of coal lie shallow. On the basis of these deposits, large mining centers of the Lanksshire, Yorkshire and other basins arose.

The massive Camberlain Mountains, composed mainly of Cambro-Silurian shales and ancient rocks of volcanic origin, approach the Pienines in the northwest. This dome-shaped rise with the summit of Scafell (978 m) is strongly dissected by radial valleys that formed on the site of faults. In the upper part of the mountains, glacial landforms and numerous lakes have been preserved, due to which this area received the name “Circle of Lakes”.

The mountains of Wales, collectively called the Cambrian Mountains, are highest in the north, where Mount Snowdon (1085 m) rises. There are large coal deposits in south Wales.

Northern Ireland is dominated by plateaus and uplands. Among them, the most famous is the Antrim basalt plateau in the extreme northeast of the island, reaching a height of more than 550 m. Under the influence of weathering, peculiar weathering forms with columnar structures arose in places there. One of these areas is called the "Giant's Causeway" for its resemblance to the end of the pavement.

Most of England is characterized by an alternation of flat plains and rolling cuesta ridges. Cuestas are usually composed of limestone or chalk, and the plains are composed of looser rocks: sands, marls, clays. The accumulation of all these sedimentary rocks occurred in ancient sea basins. The gentle peaks of the cuestas are characterized by the development of karst, and on many plains a cover of glacial deposits (moraines) has been preserved. These deposits are particularly widespread on the Midland plains, located between the Cambrian and Pennine mountains and famous for its rich grasslands. Deposits of coal and iron ore are associated with small hills here.

From the east, the Midland Plain is bordered by a long chain of Jurassic limestone questas: Cotswold, Edge, etc. Towards the southwest, they give way to narrow flat plains, which in turn give way to the Chiltern vermeil questas, gradually turning into the undulating London Plain, composed of Paleogene clays. In the axial part of this plain is the Thames Valley.

Climate

The oceanic nature of the UK climate is reflected in the prevalence of unstable weather with gusty winds and dense fog throughout the year. Winters are very wet and unusually mild, with a sharp temperature anomaly (about 12-15 degrees) compared to mid-latitude indicators. The average temperature of the coldest month - January - does not fall below +3.5 degrees even in the extreme northeast of Great Britain, and in the southwest it reaches +5.5 degrees, and plants grow there all year round. Masses of warm sea air coming from the southwest increase winter temperatures, but at the same time bring cloudy and rainy weather with strong winds and storms. When cold air invades from the east and northeast, frosty weather sets in for a long time. Snow falls throughout the country in winter, but very unevenly. In the mountainous regions of Scotland, snow cover lasts for at least 1-1.5 months. In the south of England and, especially in its southwest, snow falls very rarely and lasts no more than a week. Here the grass is green all year round. The west of Britain typically receives twice as much rainfall in winter as in summer. In the eastern regions, winter is colder and less humid.

In spring there are cold northerly winds, which significantly retard the growth of crops in the east of Scotland, and sometimes dry easterly winds. This time of year is usually the least rainy. Spring in the British Isles is cooler and longer than at the same latitudes on the continent.

In Great Britain, as in other countries with a maritime climate, summers are relatively cool: the average temperature of the warmest month - July - is 1-2 degrees lower than at the same latitudes of the mainland. In the summer months, cyclonic activity decreases, and the distribution of average July temperatures is more consistent with the latitudinal zonality: in the southeast of the country +16 degrees, and in the extreme northwest +12 degrees. Maximum temperatures in the southeast of England sometimes rise above 27 degrees, and sometimes as high as 32 degrees. Maximum precipitation here occurs in the second half of summer.

In autumn, cyclonic activity intensifies, the weather becomes cloudy and rainy, sometimes with strong storms, especially in September and October. When warm air is carried to the cooled surface of the islands, fog often occurs on the coasts.

Warm and humid winds blowing from the Atlantic are responsible for the abundance of rain in the western regions of Great Britain. On average, 2000 mm of precipitation falls there annually, while in eastern England, located in the “rain shadow,” it is only about 600 mm, and in some places even 500 mm. The mountains thus act as a natural barrier, trapping moist air on the western side. Heavy rainfall adversely affects the growth of many crops, especially wheat and barley. In general, grain crops in the British Isles perform well in drier years, but grasses often burn out then.

Great Britain is rich in water resources. Almost throughout the entire territory of the country, except for some southeastern regions, the amount of precipitation exceeds evaporation, and therefore a dense network of deep rivers is developed. The largest of them are the Severn, with a length of 354 km, and the Thames (338 km), the basins of which border each other. The Thames is of greatest importance to the UK economy. Its basin is home to 1/5 of the country's total population. The capital's conurbation, Greater London, is also located here.

The rivers of the low-lying part of the country, located east of the main watershed, are calm. In the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales, the sources of the rivers are at significant altitudes, so the rivers flow quickly and often overflow their banks, especially in the rainy season. The short but deep and fast rivers of north-west Scotland and Wales are used to generate electricity. More than 60 hydroelectric power stations have been built here. The estuaries of the largest rivers in Great Britain - the Thames, Severn, Humber, Mersey, Clyde and Forth - are wide, artificially deepened and straightened bays. They are home to the largest seaports and industrial hubs. At high tide, salt water penetrates estuaries far upstream, so the population of most seaports is supplied with drinking water from headwaters of rivers, underground reservoirs and mountain lakes.

The largest lakes in Great Britain are Loch Neagh (about 400 sq. km) in northern Ireland, as well as Loch Lomond and Loch Ness in Scotland. The numerous lakes of the Scottish Highlands and the Circle of Lakes are very picturesque and attract many tourists. They serve as a flow regulator and are used as local transport routes. So Loch Ness and Loch Lochy, located in the Great Glen and connected by a canal, form a direct waterway between the east and west coasts of Scotland. The Circle of Lakes has long been a supplier of fresh water to Manchester, which receives it through two aqueducts more than 100 km long. There are no large lakes in the lowlands of Great Britain, but there are many artificial reservoirs created on the site of former peat mining, sand and gravel quarries.

Underground reservoirs have long been the main source of high-quality water for the people of lowland England. The largest underground pool, the area of which reaches almost 30 thousand square meters. km, located under the Cretaceous limestones in the southeast of England. Currently, underground reservoirs supply 2/5 of all water consumed in England and Wales.

UK soils

UK Minerals

Flora of Great Britain

UK fauna

Many large mammals, such as bear, wild boar and Irish red deer, have long been hunted to extinction in the British Isles, and the wolf has been eradicated as a pest. Today there are only 56 species of mammals left. The red deer, the largest mammal, lives in the highlands of Cornwall and the Scottish Highlands. There are quite a few roe deer found north of Yorkshire and in the south of England. Wild goats live in mountainous areas. Among the small mammals there are hare, rabbit, marten, otter, wild cat, a large number of partridges and wild ducks. Of the small predators, the most numerous are ermine and weasel; ferrets are found in Wales, and European wild cats and American martens are found in the mountains of Scotland.

The island state is located in the northwestern part of Europe and is famous for its variable and somewhat harsh climate with rain, fog and frequent winds. All this is directly related to flora and fauna. Perhaps the flora and fauna of Great Britain is not as rich in species as in other countries of Europe or the world, but this does not lose its beauty, charm and uniqueness.

Relief characteristics

The territory belonging to the United Kingdom can be divided into two areas: High Britain and Low Britain. The first region also includes Northern Ireland and is located in the west and north of the country. The area is characterized by stable ancient conditions; it consists of strongly separated uplands and a small number of lowlands. Low Britain is located in the south and east of the country. It is characterized by a hilly landscape and small hills; young sedimentary rocks lie at the base. Together with climate and soils, the terrain influences the characteristics of the flora and fauna of Great Britain.

UK climate and water resources

The climate conditions in the country are significantly influenced by the Gulf Stream. It creates a moderate oceanic background with high humidity. Winters are mild and summers are cool with frequent fog and strong winds. The average annual temperature is +11 °C in the south and approximately +9 °C in the northeast. There is a lot of precipitation. The reason lies in the low pressure area that extends east across the Atlantic Ocean, the southwesterly winds that prevail throughout the year, and the mountains located in the western part of the country.

The kingdom is rich in water resources. Due to the large amount of precipitation exceeding evaporation, deep rivers are connected into a dense network throughout almost the entire territory of the country. The largest lakes are in Northern Ireland (Loch Tay) and Scotland (Loch Lomond, Loch Ness in the photo above). The places are very picturesque; various species of animals live here.

Soil and vegetation

Great Britain is characterized by the predominance of brown forest and podzolic soils, with humus-carbonate soils on limestone rocks. Due to heavy rainfall, all of them are usually leached. Therefore, the flora of England is very sparse; forests occupy only about 10% of the region’s area. So the animals of Great Britain are mainly inhabitants of plains, meadows and reservoirs. There is a little more woodland in Scotland, but even there it is dominated by heathland, meadows and the predominant tree species are pine, larch, spruce and oak. In the lower reaches of the mountains of Wales and England, hornbeam, elm, beech, and ash are also found. In the south of the country some evergreen species characteristic of the Mediterranean grow. The flora and fauna of Great Britain determine its climate. Natural grasslands in Wales and England are home to wild buff daffodils (an emblem of the Welsh), orchis and primroses. Above the mountainous areas there are grass and forb areas with juniper, crowberry and blueberry. The Scottish Highlands are characterized by a predominance of sphagnum-cotton grass peatlands with meadow rue and alpine knotweed.

Some plants from picturesque meadows have long become symbols of both the British themselves and their neighbors. The shamrock, or common clover, is probably familiar to many; it is associated with the name of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. And the wild leek is the emblem of the people of Wales. The thorny weed thistle (pictured) has been around for over 500 years - representing the same rebellious and proud character of the region's inhabitants.

UK fauna

The country's fauna is also not very diverse and is typical of northern Europe. At the moment, there are about 70 species from the class of mammals, although 13 of them are introduced and not indigenous; there are no endemics. Birds are very diverse (588 species). At the same time, about 250 regularly inhabit the territory, and 300 are observed rarely or during migration. Cold climates are not conducive to the diversity of reptiles, which are sensitive to temperature changes. There are only six indigenous land species, plus sea turtles (5) and reptiles brought to the island by humans (7).

Class mammals: animal species

The coast of Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and this explains the large number of seals. Thus, on sandy and pebble beaches you can find common and long-faced seals. The territorial waters are inhabited by blue and humpback whales, sei whales, fin whales, minke whales, dolphins (gray, Atlantic white-sided, common pilot whale, white-faced, striped, bottlenose dolphin, killer whale), as well as porpoise, high-browed bottlenose, strapon, beaked whale and sperm whales.

As a result of intensive hunting over the centuries, some animals in Great Britain have now become rarely seen. There are not as many wild artiodactyls in the forests as before: European roe deer, red, spotted and water (rare, vulnerable species) deer, fallow deer, Chinese muntjac. Among the large predators there are fox, wolf, wild cat, marten, ermine, weasel, ferret, otter, etc. Habitual inhabitants are badgers, wild boars, shrews. represented by a sufficient number of species: brown hare, hare and voles, dormouse, rats and mice, Carolina and common squirrels.

It is also worth noting the diversity of representatives of the Chiroptera family (20 species in total). Some names of animals are unusual, while others are familiar to many: large and small horseshoe bats, European broad-eared bats, late and two-colored bats, long-eared, water, whiskered, night and Brandt's bats, small and rufous noctules, pipistrelle, brown and gray long-eared bats.

Birds of Great Britain

Of the more than five hundred species of birds, more than half of the country occurs only during migration. Human activities have a huge impact on their natural habitats. This leads to fluctuations in the numbers of different species. Thus, as a result of the drainage of swamps, the number of waterfowl has noticeably decreased, but sparrows and pigeons, whose populations are very large, feel great in cities. The UK's fauna is not very rich in diversity, and birds are no exception. Among the indigenous inhabitants, it is worth noting finches, starlings, tits, robins, kingfishers (pictured), red-breasted robins (symbol of the country), petrels, blackbirds, etc. The number of game birds is small, but pheasants and partridges are still found.

What types of reptiles live there?

Conditions for reptiles, to put it mildly, are not the best. Therefore, there are only 11 species, and five of them are marine inhabitants (turtles). The first three representatives are viviparous and (pictured). The latter species looks more like a snake, as it has no legs. These are quite ordinary wild animals, distributed everywhere. There are three types of snakes: the copperhead and the viper. The indigenous inhabitants of the coast include sea turtles: loggerhead, hawksbill, green and Atlantic ridley.

In addition to these reptiles, at least seven more species were brought into the country at different times. These include red-eared and European marsh turtles, wall and green lizards, viper and water snakes, and aesculapian snake. Some animals in Great Britain once lived on its territory, but became extinct and were subsequently reintroduced.

Representatives of the class amphibians

There are few native species of amphibians, only eight (5 tailless and 3 tailed). In rivers and standing reservoirs there are newts: filamentous, common and crested (pictured). Among the representatives of anurans, gray and (pond, fast and grass) are common. At least eleven introduced species are known. These include newts (alpine, grey-spotted and marbled), edible frog, fire salamander, yellow-bellied toad, etc.

Invertebrate inhabitants of Great Britain

These wild animals are hardly noticeable, but they are the most numerous both in terms of total number and species diversity. The type of mollusk is represented by terrestrial 220 species. The most common and numerous class is, of course, insects. There are over 20,000 species in the UK, including beetles, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera and dragonflies.

UK animals are characterized by a meager number of species and overall low populations. This is connected not only with climate. Human economic activity, deforestation, drainage of swamps and extermination, which lasted for centuries, certainly contributed.

Relief of Great Britain

UK statistics (as of 2012)

UK climate

UK water resources

UK soils

UK Minerals

Flora of Great Britain

UK fauna

Relief characteristics

UK climate and water resources

Soil and vegetation

UK fauna

Class mammals: animal species

Birds of Great Britain

What types of reptiles live there?

Representatives of the class amphibians

Invertebrate inhabitants of Great Britain

UK statistics
(as of 2012)