In Europe, the Seven Years' War was fought between an alliance of France, Russia, Sweden, Austria and Saxony against Prussia, Hanover and Great Britain from 1756 to 1763. However, the war was global in nature. Mainly because Britain and France were fighting for dominance in North America and India. Thus, it was called the first "World War". The North American theater of war was called the "French and Indian" War, and in Germany the Seven Years' War is known as the "Third Silesian War".

Diplomatic revolution

The treaty signed in Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, in fact turned out to be only a truce, a temporary stop to the war. Austria, angry at Prussia and its own allies for the loss of a rich land - Silesia - began to reconsider its alliances and search for alternatives. The growing power and influence of Prussia worried Russia and raised the question of conducting a “preventive” war. Prussia believed that another war would be required to retain Silesia.

In the 1750s, as tensions increased in North America between British and French colonists competing for North American lands, the British attempted to prevent an ensuing war that would destabilize Europe by changing their alliances. These actions and the change in policy of the Prussian king Frederick II, known to many of his later followers as Frederick "the Great", sparked the so-called "Diplomatic Revolution" as the previous system of alliances broke down and a new one emerged: Austria, France and Russia united against Britain, Prussia and Hanover.

Europe: Frederick immediately seeks retribution

In May 1756, Britain and France officially declared war on each other, prompted by French attacks on Minorca; recent treaties have kept other countries from trying to intervene. With new alliances, Austria was ready to strike Prussia and retake Silesia, and Russia was also planning a similar initiative, so Frederick II, aware of the conflict that had begun, tried to gain an advantage.

He wanted to defeat Austria before France and Russia could mobilize, occupying as much enemy territory as possible. Frederick therefore attacked Saxony in August 1756 to try to break the alliance with Austria, seize Saxon resources and organize a military campaign planned for 1757. Under the pressure of the Prussian army, Saxony capitulated. Frederick took its capital, forcibly incorporated the Saxons into his army, and drained vast amounts of wealth from Saxony.

Prussian troops then advanced into Bohemia, but were eventually unable to gain a foothold there and retreated back to Saxony. In the spring of 1757, on May 6, the Prussians blocked the Austrian army in Prague. However, another Austrian army came to the aid of the besieged. Fortunately for the Austrians, Frederick lost the battle on June 18 at the Battle of Kolin and was forced to leave Bohemia.

Prussia under attack

Prussia was under attack from all sides, as French forces defeated the Hanoverians, who were commanded by an English general (the King of England was also the King of Hanover), and headed into Prussia, while Russia entered Prussia from the east. The Russian army eventually retreated, re-occupying East Prussia the following January. Sweden, which fought against Prussia on the side of the Franco-Russian-Austrian alliance, also initially successfully acted against Prussia. Frederick was depressed for some time, but proved himself a brilliant general, defeating vastly superior French and Austrian forces: the French army at Rosbach on November 5, and the Austrian army at Leuthen on December 5. But none of these victories were enough to force Austria or France to capitulate.

From this point on, the French set their sights on Hanover, which had recovered from defeat, and did not fight Frederick while he quickly redeployed his troops and defeated the enemy armies one by one, preventing them from effectively uniting. Austria soon ceased to fight Prussia in large open spaces, which allowed for superior maneuvering of the Prussian army, despite the fact that this was accompanied by heavy losses among the Prussians. Britain began to pursue the French coast to try to draw troops back, while Prussia drove the Swedes out.

Europe: victories and defeats

The British ignored the surrender of their Hanoverian army and returned to the region to contain France. This new British-Prussian army, commanded by Frederick's close ally (his brother-in-law), kept French forces engaged in the west away from Prussia and the French colonies. They won the Battle of Minden in 1759 and carried out a series of strategic maneuvers to tie down the enemy armies.

As mentioned above, Frederick attacked Austria, but was outnumbered during the siege and forced to retreat. He then fought the Russians at Zorndorf, but suffered heavy losses (a third of his army was killed). He was battered by Austria at Hochkirch, again losing a third of his army. By the end of the year he had cleared Prussia and Silesia of enemy armies, but was greatly weakened, unable to continue larger offensives. Austria was very pleased with this.

By this time, all the warring parties had spent huge sums on the war. At the Battle of Kunersdorf in August 1759, Frederick was completely defeated by the Austro-Russian army. On the battlefield, he lost 40% of his troops, although he managed to save the rest of the army. Thanks to Austrian and Russian caution, delays and disagreements, the victory over Prussia was not brought to its logical conclusion, and Frederick avoided capitulation.

In 1760, Frederick failed in another siege, but won minor battles against the Austrians, although at the Battle of Torgau he emerged victorious thanks to his subordinates, and not his own military talents. France, with some support from Austria, tried to achieve peace. By the end of 1761, with the enemy wintering on Prussian soil, things were going badly for Frederick, whose once highly trained army was now overflowing with hastily recruited recruits (significantly outnumbered by the enemy armies).

Frederick could no longer carry out marches and detours, and sat on the defensive. If Frederick's enemies had overcome their seeming inability to coordinate (thanks to xenophobia, animosity, confusion, class differences, etc.), the Prussians might already have been defeated. Against only part of Prussia, Frederick's efforts looked doomed, despite Austria being in dire financial straits.

The death of Elizabeth as the salvation of Prussia

Frederick hoped for a miracle, and it happened. Russian Empress Elizabeth II died and was succeeded by Tsar Peter III. The new emperor was favorable to Prussia and made an immediate peace, sending Russian troops to help Frederick. And although Peter (who even tried to invade Denmark) was soon killed, the new empress - Peter's wife, Catherine the Great - continued to honor the peace agreements, but withdrew the Russian army that had helped Frederick. This freed Frederick's hands and allowed him to win the battles against Austria. Britain took the opportunity to break its alliance with Prussia (thanks in part to mutual antipathy between Frederick and the new British Prime Minister), and declared war on Spain. Spain invaded Portugal but was stopped by the British.

World War

Although British troops fought on the continent, Britain chose to limit itself to financial support for Frederick and Hanover (subsidies exceeding anything ever previously issued in the history of the British crown) rather than fighting in Europe. This made it possible to send troops and navies to a completely different part of the world. The British had been fighting in North America since 1754, and William Pitt's government decided to further prioritize the war in America and attack French imperial possessions with its powerful navy, where France was most vulnerable.

In contrast, France first focused on Europe, planning an invasion of Britain, but this opportunity was dashed by the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759, destroying what remained of France's Atlantic naval power and ability to hold colonies in the Americas. By 1760, England had effectively won the French and Indian War in North America, but the world was awaiting the end of hostilities in other theaters.

In 1759, a small opportunistic British force, without suffering any losses and acquiring a large amount of valuables, captured Fort Louis on the Senegal River in Africa. Thus, by the end of the year, all French trading posts in Africa were in British hands. Britain then attacked France in the West Indies, taking the rich island of Guadeloupe and moving on to other targets to enrich itself. The British East India Company attacked the French colonies in India, and, thanks to the large British Royal Navy dominating the Indian Ocean as well as the Atlantic, drove France out of the region. By the end of the war, the British Empire had increased significantly, and the territory of the French possessions had decreased significantly. England and Spain also declared war on each other, and Britain crushed its new enemy, capturing Havana and a quarter of the Spanish navy.

World

Neither Prussia, nor Austria, nor Russia or France could achieve the decisive advantage in the war necessary to capitulate their enemies, and by 1763 the war in Europe had so exhausted the belligerents that the powers began to seek peace. Austria faced bankruptcy and the inability to continue the war without Russia, France was winning abroad and was unwilling to fight for Austria in Europe, and England was seeking to consolidate global success and put an end to France's resources. Prussia intended to return to the pre-war state of affairs, but as peace negotiations dragged on, Frederick sucked as much out of Saxony as he could, including kidnapping girls and placing them in depopulated areas of Prussia.

The Treaty of Paris was signed on February 10, 1763. He settled the problems between Great Britain, Spain and France, diminishing the latter, once the greatest power in Europe. Britain returned Havana to Spain, but received Florida in return. France ceded Louisiana to Spain, while England received all French lands in North America east of the Mississippi except New Orleans. Britain also received most of the West Indies, Senegal, Minorca and lands in India. Hanover remained with the British. On February 10, 1763, the Treaty of Hubertusburg, signed between Prussia and Austria, confirmed the status quo: it secured Silesia and achieved the status of a “great power,” while Austria retained Saxony. As historian Fred Anderson noted, “Millions were spent and tens of thousands died, but nothing changed.”

Results

Britain remained the dominant world power, although it incurred large debts, which led to increased exploitation of the colonies in North America, and, as a result, the War of Independence of the British Colonies (another global conflict that would end in British defeat). France approached economic disaster and the ensuing revolution. Prussia lost 10% of its population, but, crucially for Frederick's reputation, survived an alliance of Austria, Russia, and France that wanted to reduce Prussia's influence or even destroy it, although historians like Szabó claim that Frederick's role is too exaggerated.

Reforms followed in many of the warring states and armies, as Austrian fears that Europe was on the road to catastrophic militarism were well founded. Austria's failure to subjugate Prussia condemned it to competition between them for the future of Germany, benefiting Russia and France, and led to the emergence of a German Empire under Prussian leadership. The war also brought a shift in the balance of diplomacy, with Spain and Holland decreasing in importance to give way to two new Great Powers - and Russia. Saxony was plundered and destroyed.

Believing the oaths of a traitor is the same as believing the piety of the devil

Elizabeth 1

The fifties of the 18th century brought changes in the political situation in Europe. Austria has lost its position. England and France were in a state of conflict in the struggle for dominance on the American continent. The German army developed at a rapid pace and was considered invincible in Europe.

Causes of the war

By 1756, two coalitions had emerged in Europe. As mentioned above, England and France determined who would dominate the American continent. The British secured the support of the Germans. The French won over Austria, Saxony and Russia.

The course of the war - the basis of the event

The war was started by the German king Frederick II. He struck Saxony and in August 1756 completely destroyed its army. Russia, fulfilling its allied duty, sends an army led by General Apraksin to help. The Russians were given the task of capturing Konigsberg, which was guarded by a forty thousand-strong German army. A major battle between the Russian and German armies took place near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf. On August 19, 1757, the Russians defeated the German troops, forcing them to flee. The myth of the invincibility of the German army was dispelled. A key role in this victory was played by P.A. Rumyantsev, who connected reserves in time and dealt a terrible blow to the Germans. The commander of the Russian army, Apraksin S.F., knowing that Empress Elizabeth was sick and her heir Peter sympathized with the Germans, ordered the Russian army not to pursue the Germans. This step allowed the Germans to calmly retreat and quickly gather their strength again.

Empress Elizabeth recovered and removed Apraksin from command of the army. Seven Years' War 1757-1762 continued. Fermor V.V. began to control the Russian army. Soon after his appointment, in 1757 Fermor took possession of Koenisberg. Empress Elizabeth was pleased with this conquest and in January 1578 signed a decree according to which the lands of East Prussia were transferred to Russia.

In 1758, a new major battle took place between the Russian and German armies. It happened near the village of Zorndorf. The Germans attacked fiercely, they had the advantage. Fermor shamefully fled from the battlefield, but the Russian army survived, again defeating the Germans.

In 1759, P.S. Saltykov was appointed commander of the Russian army, who in the first year inflicted a severe defeat on the Germans near Kunersdorf. After this, the Russian army continued its advance to the west and captured Berlin in September 1760. In 1761, the large German fortress of Kolberg fell.

End of hostilities

Allied troops did not help either Russia or Prussia. Drawn into this war by France on the one hand and England on the other, the Russians and Germans exterminated each other while the British and French decided on their world domination.

After the fall of Kohlberg, the Prussian king Frederick II was in despair. German history says that he tried to abdicate the throne several times. There are cases when at the same time Frederick II tried to commit suicide. When it seemed that the situation was hopeless, the unexpected happened. Elizabeth died in Russia. Her successor was Peter 3, married to a German princess and with a love for everything German. This emperor shamefully signed an alliance treaty with Prussia, as a result of which Russia received absolutely nothing. For seven years, Russians shed blood in Europe, but this did not produce any results for the country. The traitor emperor, as Peter 3 was called in the Russian army, saved Germany from destruction by signing an alliance. For this he paid with his life.

An alliance treaty with Prussia was signed in 1761. After Catherine 2 came to power in 1762, this agreement was terminated, however, the empress did not risk sending Russian troops to Europe again.

Key events:

• 1756 - Defeat of France by England. The beginning of Russia's war against Prussia.
• 1757 - Russian victory in the battle of Groß-Jägersdorf. Prussian victory in France and Austria at Rosbach.
• 1758 - Russian troops took Konigsberg
• 1759 - Victory of the Russian army in the battle of Kunersdorf
• 1760 - Capture of Berlin by the Russian army
• 1761 - Victory in the battle of Kolberg fortress
• 1762 - Peace Treaty between Prussia and Russia. Return to Frederick 2 of all lands lost during the war
• 1763 - The Seven Years' War ended

In the 50s Prussia becomes Russia's main enemy. The reason for this is the aggressive policy of its king, aimed at the east of Europe.

The Seven Years' War began in 1756 . The conference at the highest court, which under Empress Elizabeth played the role of the Secret, or Military, Council, set the task - “by weakening the king of Prussia, make him fearless and carefree for the local side (for Russia”).

Frederick II in August 1756, without declaring war, attacked Saxony. His army, having defeated the Austrians, captured Dresden and Leipzig. The anti-Prussian coalition is finally taking shape - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden.

In the summer of 1757, the Russian army entered East Prussia. On the way to Königsberg, near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf, the army of Field Marshal S. F. Apraksin met with the army of Field Marshal H. Lewald on August 19 (30), 1757.

The Prussians began the battle. They successively attacked the left flank and center, then the right flank of the Russians. They broke through the center, and a critical situation was created here. The regiments of the division of General Lopukhin, who was killed during the battle, suffered heavy losses and began to retreat. The enemy could break into the rear of the Russian army. But the situation was saved by the four reserve regiments of P. A. Rumyantsev, a young general whose star began to rise in these years. Their swift and sudden attack on the flank of the Prussian infantry led to its panicked flight. The same thing happened in the location of the Russian vanguard and right flank. Fire from cannons and rifles mowed down the ranks of the Prussians. They fled along the entire front, losing more than 3 thousand killed and 5 thousand wounded; Russians - 1.4 thousand killed and more than 5 thousand wounded.

Apraksin won the victory with the help of only part of his army. As a result, the road to Koenigsberg was clear. But the commander took the army to Tilsit, then to Courland and Livonia for winter quarters. The reason for the departure was not only the lack of provisions and mass illnesses among the soldiers, which he wrote to St. Petersburg, but also something else that he kept silent about - the empress fell ill and the accession of Prince Peter Fedorovich, her nephew and supporter of the Prussian king, was expected.

Elizaveta soon recovered, and Apraksin was put on trial. General V.V. Farmer, an Englishman by birth, is appointed commander. He distinguished himself in the wars of the 30s and 40s. with Turkey and Sweden. During the Seven Years' War, his corps took Memel and Tilsit. The general showed himself well with his division in the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf. Having become the head of the Russian army, in January he occupied Konigsberg, then all of East Prussia. Its residents took an oath to the Russian Empress.

At the beginning of June, Fermor went southwest - to Küstrin, which is eastern Berlin, at the confluence of the Warta River with the Oder. Here, near the village of Zorndorf, a battle took place on August 14 (25). The Russian army numbered 42.5 thousand people, the army of Frederick II - 32.7 thousand. The battle lasted all day and was fierce. Both sides suffered heavy losses. Both the Prussian king and Fermor spoke of their victory, and both withdrew their armies from Zorndorf. The result of the battle was uncertain. The indecisiveness of the Russian commander, his distrust of the soldiers did not allow him to complete the job and win a victory. But the Russian army showed its strength, and Frederick retreated, not daring to fight again with those whom, as he himself admitted, he “could not crush.” Moreover, he feared a disaster, since his army had lost its best soldiers.

Fermor received his resignation on May 8, 1758, but served in the army until the end of the war and showed himself well while commanding corps. He left behind a memory as an efficient, but uninitiative, indecisive commander in chief. Being a military leader of a lower rank, showing courage and management, he distinguished himself in a number of battles.

In his place, unexpectedly for many, including himself, General Pyotr Semenovich Saltykov was appointed. A representative of an old family of Moscow boyars, a relative of the empress (her mother was from the Saltykov family), he began serving as a soldier in Peter's guard in 1714. He lived in France for two decades, studying maritime affairs. But, returning to Russia in the early 30s, he served in the guard and at court. Then he takes part in the Polish campaign (1733) and the Russian-Swedish war; later, during the Seven Years' War - in the capture of Koenigsberg, the Battle of Zorndorf. He became commander-in-chief when he was 61 years old - for that time he was already an old man.

Saltykov had an eccentric, peculiar character. He was somewhat reminiscent of the man who began his military career during these years - he loved the army and soldiers, just like they did him, he was a simple and modest, honest and comical person. He could not stand ceremonies and receptions, splendor and pomp. This “gray-haired, small, simple old man,” as A. T. Bolotov, a famous memoirist and participant in the Seven Years’ War, attests to him, “seemed... like a real chicken”. The capital's politicians laughed at him and recommended that he consult the Farmer and the Austrians in everything. But he, an experienced and decisive general, despite his “simple” kind of made decisions himself, delved into everything. He did not bend his back to the Conference, which constantly interfered in the affairs of the army, believing that it could be controlled from St. Petersburg, thousands of miles from the theater of military operations. His independence and firmness, energy and common sense, caution and hatred of routine, quick intelligence and remarkable composure captivated the soldiers who sincerely loved him.

Having taken command of the army, Saltykov leads it to Frankfurt-on-Oder. On July 12 (23), 1759, he defeats the army of General Wedel at Palzig. Then Frankfurt is captured. Here, near the village of Kunersdorf, on the right bank of the Oder, opposite Frankfurt, on August 1 (12), 1759, a general battle took place. In Saltykov's army there were about 41 thousand Russian soldiers with 200 guns and 18.5 thousand Austrians with 48 guns; in Frederick's army - 48 thousand, 114 heavy guns, regimental artillery. During the fierce battle, success accompanied first one side, then the other. Saltykov skillfully maneuvered the shelves, moving them to the right places and at the right time. The artillery, Russian infantry, Austrian and Russian cavalry performed excellently. At the beginning of the battle, the Prussians pushed back the Russians on the left flank. However, the Prussian infantry attack in the center was repulsed. Here Frederick twice threw his main force into battle - the cavalry of General Seydlitz. But it was destroyed by Russian soldiers. Then the Russians launched a counterattack on the left flank and drove the enemy back. The transition of the entire Allied army to the offensive ended in the complete defeat of Frederick. He himself and the remnants of his army fled in terrible panic from the battlefield. The king was almost captured by the Cossacks. He lost more than 18.5 thousand people, the Russians - more than 13 thousand, the Austrians - about 2 thousand. Berlin was preparing to capitulate, the archives and the king’s family were taken out of it, and he himself, according to rumors, was thinking about suicide.

After brilliant victories, Saltykov received the rank of field marshal. In the future, the intrigues of the Austrians and the distrust of the Conference unsettle him. He fell ill and was replaced by the same Fermor.

During the campaign of 1760, the detachment of General Z. G. Chernyshev occupied Berlin on September 28 (October 9). But the lack of coordination between the actions of the Austrian and Russian armies again and greatly hinders the matter. Berlin had to be abandoned, but the fact of its capture made a strong impression on Europe. At the end of the next year, a 16,000-strong corps under the skillful command of Rumyantsev, with the support of a landing force of sailors led by G. A. Spiridov, captured the Kolberg fortress on the Baltic coast. The path to Stettin and Berlin opened. Prussia stood on the brink of destruction.

Salvation for Frederick came from St. Petersburg - she died on December 25, 1761, and her nephew (the son of the Duke of Goshtinsky and Anna, daughter) Peter III Fedorovich, who replaced her on the throne, concluded a truce on March 5 (16), 1762 with the Prussian monarch he adored. And a month and a half later, he concludes a peace treaty with him - Prussia receives all its lands back. Russia's sacrifices in the seven-year war were in vain.

The Seven Years' War is commonly referred to in historiography as the conflict between Prussia, Portugal, Russia, and Britain on the one hand and the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Sweden, and France on the other.
One of the greatest Britons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, called the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) “the First World War,” since it took place on several continents and involved enormous human resources.
The Seven Years' War was also called the "first trench war", because it was then that quickly erected fortifications, redoubts, etc. were used on a large scale. During the conflict, artillery pieces also began to be widely used - the number of artillery in armies increased 3 times.

Causes of the war

One of the main reasons for the Seven Years' War is considered to be the Anglo-French conflicts in North America. There was intense colonial rivalry between the countries. In 1755, a war began in America between England and France, during which indigenous tribes also took part. The British government officially declared war in 1756.

It was the conflict between the French and the British that violated all the alliances and agreements that had developed in Western Europe. Prussia, a once weak state, began to gain power after Frederick II came to power, thereby pushing out France and Austria.
After the war with France had already begun, the British entered into an alliance with a new powerful player in the political arena - Prussia. Austria, which had previously lost the war to Prussia and ceded Silesia, entered into negotiations with France. In 1755, France and Austria signed a defensive alliance, and in 1756 the Russian Empire also joined this alliance. Thus, Frederick found himself embroiled in a conflict against three powerful states. England, which at that moment did not have a powerful land army, could only help Prussia with funding.

France, Austria and Russia were not interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, but each of them wanted to significantly weaken the country and then use it to their own advantage. Thus, we can say that France, Austria and Russia sought to resume the old political picture of Europe.

The balance of enemy forces at the beginning of hostilities in Europe
Anglo-Prussian side:

Prussia - 200 thousand people;
England – 90 thousand people;
Hannover – 50 thousand people.

In total, the Anglo-Prussian coalition had 340 thousand fighters at its disposal.
Anti-Prussian coalition:

Spain – 25 thousand people;
Austria – 200 thousand people;
France – 200 thousand people;
Russia – 330 thousand people.

Opponents of the Anglo-Prussian side were able to assemble an army with a total number of 750 thousand people, which was more than twice the strength of their enemies. Thus, we can see the complete superiority of the anti-Prussian coalition in manpower at the beginning of hostilities.

On August 28, 1756, the Emperor of Prussia, Frederick II the Great, was the first to start the war, without waiting for the moment when his enemies would join forces and march on Prussia.
First of all, Frederick went to war against Saxony. Already on September 12, the Russian Empire responded to Prussia’s aggression and declared war on it.

In October, an Austrian army was sent to help Saxony, but Frederick defeated it at the Battle of Lobositz. Thus, the Saxon army was left in a hopeless situation. On October 16, Saxony capitulated, and its fighting forces were forced into the ranks of the Prussian army.

European theater of war in 1757

Frederick again decided not to wait for aggression from France and the Russian Empire, but decided to defeat Austria in the meantime and throw it out of the conflict.

In 1757, the Prussian army entered the Austrian province of Bohemia. Austria sent 60 thousand people to stop Frederick, but was defeated, as a result of which the Austrian army was blocked in Prague. In June 1757, Frederick lost the battle to the Austrians without taking Prague, after which he was forced to return to Saxony.
The initiative was seized by Austrian troops and during 1757 they inflicted several defeats on the Prussian army, and in October of the same year they managed to capture the capital of Prussia, Berlin.

Meanwhile, Frederick and his army defended their borders from the West - from French aggression. Upon learning of the fall of Berlin, Frederick sends 40 thousand soldiers to regain the advantage and defeat the Austrians. On December 5, leading the army in person, Frederick the Great inflicts a crushing defeat on the Austrians at Leuthen. Thus, the situation at the end of 1757 returned the opponents to the beginning of the year, and the military campaigns ultimately ended in a “draw.”

European theater of war in 1758

After an unsuccessful campaign in 1757, the Russian army under the command of Fermor occupied East Prussia. In 1758, Koenigsberg also fell under the pressure of the Russian army.

In August 1858, the Russian army was already approaching Berlin. Frederick advances the Prussian army to meet. On August 14, the battle takes place near the village of Zorndorf. A bloody, chaotic battle ensued, and eventually both armies retreated. The Russian army returned across the Vistula. Frederick withdrew his troops to Saxony.

Meanwhile, the Prussian army is fighting against the French. During 1758, Frederick inflicted three major defeats on the French, which also seriously weakened the Prussian army.

European theater of operations in 1759

On July 23, 1759, the Russian army under the command of Saltykov defeated the Prussian army in the Battle of Palzig. Frederick moved towards the Russian army from the south and on August 12, 1759, the Battle of Kunersdofra began. Having a numerical advantage, the Austrian-Russian army was able to deal a crushing blow to Frederick. The king had only 3 thousand soldiers left and the road to Berlin was already open.
Friedrich understood that the situation was hopeless. And yet, a miracle happened - due to disagreements, the allies left Prussia, not daring to go to Berlin.

In 1759, Frederick asked for peace, but was refused. The Allies intend to completely defeat Prussia next year by taking Berlin.
Meanwhile, England inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at sea.
European theater of operations in 1760
Although the Allies had a numerical advantage, they did not have a coordinated plan of action, which Frederick II continued to exploit.
At the beginning of the year, Frederick with difficulty reassembled an army of 200 thousand people and already in August 1760, not far from Liegnitz, he defeated the corps of the Austrian army.

Allies storm Berlin

In October 1760, the Allies stormed Berlin, but the defenders repelled the attack. On October 8, seeing the enemy's advantage, the Prussian army deliberately left the city. Already on October 9, the Russian army accepted the surrender of the Prussian capital. Then information about Frederick’s approach reaches the Russian command, after which they leave the capital, and the King of Prussia, having heard about the retreat, deploys his army to Saxony.

On November 3, 1760, one of the largest battles of the war takes place - at Torgau, Frederick defeats the Allied armies.
European theater of operations in 1761-1763

In 1761, neither side was actively fighting. The Allies are confident that Prussia's defeat cannot be avoided. Frederick himself thought differently.

In 1762, the new ruler of the Russian Empire, Peter III, concluded the Peace of St. Petersburg with Frederick and thereby saved Prussia from defeat. The Emperor gives up the captured territories in East Prussia and sends an army to support Frederick.
Peter's actions caused discontent, as a result of which the emperor was thrown off the throne and died under strange circumstances. Catherine ascends the throne of the Russian Empire. Afterwards, the empress recalls the army sent to help Prussia, but does not declare war, adhering to the peace agreement of 1762.

In 1762, the Prussian army, taking advantage of the situation, won four major battles against the Austrians and French, completely returning the initiative to Prussia.

In parallel with the fighting in Europe, there was a war going on between the French and the British in North America.
On September 13, 1759, the British won a brilliant victory over the French at Quebec, despite being outnumbered by their enemies. In the same year, the French retreat to Montreal, and the British take Quebec - Canada was lost to France.

Fighting in Asia

In 1757-1761, the war continues between France and England in India. During the fighting, the French suffered a number of crushing defeats. As a result, in 1861, the capital of the French possessions in India surrendered to the onslaught of the British army.
After the victory in India, the British faced a war with the Spaniards in the Philippines. In 1762, the British sent a large fleet to the Philippines and captured Manila, which was defended by a Spanish garrison. And yet, the British did not manage to gain a permanent foothold here. After 1763, British troops gradually began to leave the Philippines.

The reason for the end of the war was the complete exhaustion of the warring parties. On May 22, 1762, Prussia and France signed a peace treaty. On November 24, Prussia and Austria abandoned hostilities.

On February 10, 1763, Great Britain and France signed a peace treaty.
The war ended with the complete victory of the Anglo-Prussian side. As a result, Prussia significantly strengthened its position in Europe and became an important player in the international arena.

France lost control of India and Canada during the war. Russia acquired nothing during the war except military experience. England received India and Canada.

During the fighting, approximately 1.5 million people died, including civilians. Prussian and Austrian sources speak of a figure of 2 million people.

Seven Years' War

The rapid rise of Prussia caused general envy and alarm among the European powers. Austria, having lost Silesia in 1734, longed for revenge. France was worried about the rapprochement between Frederick II and England. The Russian Chancellor Bestuzhev considered Prussia the worst and most dangerous enemy of the Russian Empire.

Back in 1755, Bestuzhev was trying to conclude a so-called subsidy agreement with England. England was to be given gold, and Russia was to field 30–40 thousand troops. This “project” was destined to remain a “project”. Bestuzhev, correctly considering the significance of the “Prussian danger” for Russia, at the same time reveals a complete lack of maturity of judgment.

He plans to crush the Prussia of Frederick II with a “corps of 30–40 thousand,” and for money he turns to none other than Prussia’s ally, England. Under such circumstances, in January 1756, Prussia entered into an alliance with England, the response to which was the formation of a tripartite coalition of Austria, France and Russia, joined by Sweden and Saxony.

Austria demanded the return of Silesia, Russia was promised East Prussia (with the right to exchange it from Poland for Courland), Sweden and Saxony were seduced by other Prussian lands: the first by Pomerania, the second by Lusation. Soon almost all German principalities joined this coalition. The soul of the entire coalition was Austria, which fielded the largest army and had the best diplomacy. Austria very cleverly managed to force all its allies, and mainly Russia, to serve its interests.

While the allies were sharing the skin of the unkilled bear, Frederick, surrounded by enemies, decided not to wait for their blows, but to start himself. In August 1756, he was the first to open hostilities, taking advantage of the unpreparedness of the allies, he invaded Saxony, surrounded the Saxon army in the camp at Pirna and forced it to lay down its arms. Saxony immediately fell out of action, and its captured army almost entirely went into Prussian service.

The campaign was announced to the Russian army in October 1756 and during the winter it was supposed to concentrate in Lithuania. Field Marshal Count Apraksin was appointed commander-in-chief, placed in the closest dependence on the Conference, an institution borrowed from the Austrians and which, in Russian conditions, was a deteriorated edition of the notorious “Gofkriegsrat”. The members of the Conference were: Chancellor Bestuzhev, Prince Trubetskoy, Field Marshal Buturlin, the Shuvalov brothers. However, our “Austrophilism” was not limited to this alone, but went much further: the Conference immediately fell entirely under Austrian influence and, commanding an army a thousand miles from St. Petersburg, was guided, it seemed, primarily by observing the interests of the Vienna cabinet.

In 1757, three main theaters were determined, which then existed throughout the entire Seven Years' War - the Franco-Imperial, the main, or Austrian, and the Russian.

Fusilier, chief officer, grenadiers of the Tengin infantry regiment, 1732–1756. Colorized engraving

Frederick opened the campaign by moving at the end of April from different directions - concentrically - into Bohemia. He defeated the Austrian army of Prince Charles of Lorraine near Prague and locked it in Prague. However, the second Austrian army of Down moved to her rescue, defeating Frederick at Kolin (June). Frederick retreated to Saxony, and by the end of the summer his position had become critical. Prussia was surrounded by 300,000 enemies. The king entrusted the defense against Austria to the Duke of Bevern, and he himself hurried to the West. Having bribed the commander-in-chief of the northern French army, the Duke of Richelieu, and secured his inaction, he, after some hesitation caused by bad news from the East, turned to the southern Franco-Imperial army. Frederick II would not have been a Prussian and a German if he had acted only by honest means.

With an army of twenty-one thousand, he utterly defeated 64,000 Franco-Imperial Soubise at Rosbach, and then moved into Silesia, where Bevernsky was meanwhile defeated at Breslau. On December 5, Frederick attacked the Austrians and literally incinerated their army in the famous Battle of Leuthen. This is the most brilliant of all Frederick's campaigns; according to Napoleon, for one Leuthen he deserves to be called a great commander.

The Russian army, operating in the secondary East Prussian theater of war, remained aloof from the main events of the 1757 campaign. Its concentration in Lithuania took the whole winter and spring. There was a large shortage in the troops, which was especially noticeable in officers.

They did not go on the hike with a light heart. We were afraid of the Prussians. Since the time of Peter I and, especially, Anna, the German has been a reserved being for us - of a different, higher order, teacher and boss. The Prussian was just a German to all Germans. “Frederick, they say, beat the Frenchman himself, and the Tsars and even more so - how can we, many sinners, resist him! The nasty Russian habit of always belittling oneself in comparison with a foreigner... After the first skirmish on the border, where three of our dragoon regiments were overthrown by the Prussian hussars, the entire army was seized by “great timidity, cowardice and fear,” which, however, affected the top much more strongly than the bottoms.

By May, the concentration of our army on the Neman ended. There were 89,000 people in it, of which no more than 50-55 thousand were fit for battle - “actually fighting”, the rest were non-combatants of all kinds, or unorganized Kalmyks armed with bows and arrows.

Prussia was defended by the army of Field Marshal Lewald (30,500 regulars and up to 10,000 armed residents). Frederick, busy fighting Austria and France, treated the Russians with disdain:

“Russian barbarians do not deserve to be mentioned here,” he once remarked in one of his letters.

The Russian commander-in-chief depended entirely on the St. Petersburg Conference. He did not have the right to dispose of troops without the formal “approbation” of the cabinet each time, he did not have the right to take the initiative in the event of a change in the situation and had to communicate with St. Petersburg on all sorts of trifles. In the campaign of 1757, the Conference ordered him to maneuver in such a way that it would be “all the same for him to march straight towards Prussia or to the left through the whole of Poland into Silesia.” The goal of the campaign was to capture East Prussia, but Apraksin was not sure until June that part of his army would not be sent to Silesia to strengthen the Austrians.

S. F. Apraksin. Unknown artist

On June 25, Farmer's vanguard captured Memel, which served as the signal for the opening of the campaign. Apraksin marched with the main forces to Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen, sending the vanguard of General Sibilsky - 6,000 horses - to Friedland to act in the rear of the Prussians. The movement of our army was characterized by slowness, which was explained by administrative troubles, the abundance of artillery and the fear of the Prussian troops, about whom there were whole legends. On July 10, the main forces crossed the border, passed Gumbinen on the 15th and occupied Insterburg on the 18th. Sibilsky's cavalry did not live up to the hopes placed on it, just as a hundred and fifty years later - in the same places, the detachment of the Khan of Nakhichevan would not justify them... Lewald was waiting for the Russians in a strong position across the Alla River, near Velau. Having united with the vanguard - Farmer and Sibilsky, Apraksin moved to Allenburg on August 12, deeply bypassing the Prussian position. Having learned about this movement, Lewald hastened to meet the Russians and on August 19 attacked them at Gross-Jägernsdorf, but was repulsed. Levald had 22,000 people in this battle, Apraksin had up to 57,000, of which, however, half did not take part in the matter. The fate of the battle was decided by Rumyantsev, who grabbed the vanguard infantry and marched with it through the forest with bayonets. The Prussians could not withstand this attack. The spoils of victory were 29 guns and 600 prisoners. The Prussians' damage was up to 4000, ours - over 6000. This first victory had the most beneficial effect on the troops, showing them that a Prussian was no worse than a Swede or a Turk in running away from a Russian bayonet. She made the Prussians think too.

After the Battle of Jägernsdorf, the Prussians retreated to Weslau. Apraksin moved after them and on August 25 began to bypass their right flank. Lewald did not accept the fight and retreated. The military council assembled by Apraksin decided, in view of the difficulty of feeding the army, to retreat to Tilsit, where the economic part would be put in order. On August 27, the retreat began, carried out very secretly (the Prussians learned about it only on September 4). During the march, it became clear that due to complete disorder it was impossible to go on the offensive that same fall and it was decided to retreat to Courland. On September 13, they will leave Tilsit, and the Russian military council decided to avoid battle with Lewald’s vanguard, despite all our superiority in strength; “Cowardice and fear,” of course, were no longer in sight, but the notorious “timidity,” apparently, had not completely abandoned our senior leaders. On September 16, the entire army was withdrawn beyond the Neman. The campaign of 1757 ended in vain due to the extraordinary constraint on the actions of the commander-in-chief by cabinet strategists and the disruption of the economic part.

Musketeer headquarters and chief officers of the Life Guards Regiment of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1762. Colored engraving

Chief officer and reiter of the Life Guards Cavalry Regiment, 1732–1742. Colorized engraving

Chief officer of the Horse Regiment, 1742–1762. Colorized engraving

The conference demanded an immediate transition to the offensive, as our diplomacy promised the allies. Apraksin refused, was removed from office and put on trial, and died of a stroke without waiting for trial. They treated him unfairly, Apraksin did everything that any boss of average talents and abilities could have done in his place, placed in a truly impossible position and tied hand and foot by the Conference.

Instead of Apraksin, General Farmer was appointed commander-in-chief - an excellent administrator, a caring boss (Suvorov remembered him as a “second father”), but at the same time fussy and indecisive. The farmer began organizing troops and organizing the economic part.

Frederick II, disdainful of the Russians, did not even allow the thought that the Russian army would be able to make a winter campaign. He sent Lewald's entire army to Pomerania against the Swedes, leaving only 6 garrison companies in East Prussia. The farmer knew this, but, receiving no orders, did not move.

Meanwhile, the Conference, in order to refute the reprehensible opinions about the fighting qualities of the Russian troops that were circulating in Europe through the efforts of the Prussian “newspapers”, ordered the Farmer to move to East Prussia at the first snow.

On the first day of January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) crossed the border. On January 11, Koenigsberg was occupied, and then all of East Prussia, converted into the Russian General Government. We acquired a valuable base for further operations and, in fact, achieved our goal of the war. The Prussian population, sworn to Russian citizenship by Apraksin, did not oppose our troops, and the local authorities were favorably disposed towards Russia. Having captured East Prussia, the Farmer wanted to move to Danzig, but was stopped by the Conference, which ordered him to wait for the arrival of the Observation Corps, demonstrate together with the Swedes on Küstrin, and then march with the army to Frankfurt. In anticipation of summer time, the Farmer stationed most of the army at Thorn and Poznan, without particularly caring about maintaining the neutrality of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

On July 2, the army set off for Franfort, as instructed. It consisted of 55,000 fighters. The disorder of the Observation Corps, ignorance of the terrain, food difficulties and constant interference by the Conference led to a waste of time, long stops and counter-marches. All maneuvers were carried out under the cover of Rumyantsev's cavalry of 4000 sabers, whose actions can be called exemplary.

The Military Council decided not to get involved in battle with the Don corps, which warned us in Frankfurt, and to go to Küstrin to contact the Swedes. On August 3, our army approached Küstrin and on the 4th began bombarding it.

Friedrich P. himself hastened to the rescue of the threatened Brandenburg. Having left 40,000 people against the Austrians, he moved with 15,000 to the Oder, united with the Don corps and went down the Oder towards the Russians. The farmer lifted the siege of Küstrin and retreated to Zorndorf on August 11, where he took up a strong position. After Rumyantsev's division was sent to cross the Oder, the Russian army had 42,000 people with 240 guns. The Prussians had 33,000 and 116 guns.

Frederick bypassed the Russian position from the rear and forced our army to give him battle with an inverted front. The bloody Zorndorf battle on August 14 had no tactical consequences. Both armies "broke against each other." Morally, Zorndorf is a Russian victory and a cruel blow to Frederick. Here, as they say, “the scythe found a stone” - and the Prussian king saw that “these people could be killed rather than defeated.”

Here he experienced his first disappointment: the vaunted Prussian infantry, having experienced the Russian bayonet, refused to attack again. The honor of this bloody day belongs to the men-at-arms of Seydlitz and those old regiments of the iron Russian infantry, about which the rush of their avalanches crashed... The Russian army had to rebuild the front already under fire. Its right and left flanks were separated by a ravine. Frederick's flanking maneuver pinned our army to the Mitchell River and turned the main advantage of our Zorndorf position into an extreme disadvantage; the river found itself in the rear. On the part of the Farmer, who had absolutely no control over the battle, not the slightest attempt was made to coordinate the actions of the two disunited masses, and this allowed Frederick to fall first on our right flank, then on our left. In both cases, the Prussian infantry was repulsed and overthrown, but while pursuing it, the Russians became frustrated and came under attack from the Prussian cavalry masses. We had almost no cavalry, only 2700, the rest under Rumyantsev. By the end of the battle, the front of the armies formed a right angle with the original front, the battlefield and the trophies on it were, as it were, divided in half.

Our damage was 19,500 killed and wounded, 3,000 prisoners, 11 banners, 85 guns - 54 percent of the entire army. Out of 9,143 people, only 1,687 remained in the ranks of the Observation Corps.

The Prussians had 10,000 killed and wounded, 1,500 prisoners, 10 banners and 26 guns - up to 35 percent of the total strength. Frederick II set the resilience of the Russians as an example for his own troops, especially the infantry.

By drawing Rumyantsev to him, the Farmer could have resumed the battle with greater chances of success, but he missed this opportunity. Frederick retreated to Silesia - the Farmer set out to capture the heavily fortified Kolberg in Pomerania. He acted hesitantly and at the end of October withdrew the army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1758 - a successful winter and unsuccessful summer campaigns - was generally favorable for Russian weapons.

On other fronts, Frederick continued his active defense, acting along internal operational lines. At Hochkirch he was defeated, Daun attacked him at night, but the indecisiveness of Daun, who did not dare to take advantage of his victory, despite the double superiority in forces, rescued the Prussians.

V.V. Farmer. Artist A. P. Antropov

By the opening of the 1759 campaign, the quality of the Prussian army was no longer the same as in previous years. Many military generals and officers, old and experienced soldiers died. Prisoners and defectors had to be placed in the ranks along with untrained recruits. No longer having those forces, Frederick decided to abandon his usual initiative in opening a campaign and wait first for the actions of the allies, in order to then maneuver on their messages. Interested in the short duration of the campaign due to the scarcity of his funds, the Prussian king sought to slow down the start of allied operations, and for this purpose launched cavalry raids along their rear to destroy stores. In that era of store rations for armies and the “five transitional system,” the destruction of stores entailed the disruption of the campaign plan. The first raid, carried out on the Russian rear in Poznan by a small force in February, was generally successful for the Prussians, although it did not cause any particular harm to the Russian army. Rumyantsev vainly pointed out to the Farmer, when occupying the apartments, all the disadvantages and dangers of the cordon location. This even caused their quarrel. In 1759, Rumyantsev did not receive a position in the active army, but was appointed inspector of logistics, from where he was required to join the army by Saltykov. Another raid behind the Austrians in April was much more successful, and the Austrian headquarters was so frightened by it that they abandoned all active actions during the spring and early summer.

Meanwhile, the St. Petersburg Conference, having finally fallen under the influence of Austria, developed a plan of operations for 1759, according to which the Russian army became auxiliary to the Austrian one. It was supposed to be increased to 120,000, of which 90,000 would be sent to join the Tsars, and 30,000 would be left on the Lower Vistula.

At the same time, the commander-in-chief was not at all indicated where exactly to connect with the Austrians and what to be guided by when carrying out operations “up or down the Oder.”

It was not possible to complete the army even to half of what was expected - due to the insistent demands of the Austrians, it was necessary to set out on a campaign before the arrival of reinforcements. At the end of May, the army set out from Bromberg to Poznan and, moving slowly, arrived there only in the 20th of June. Here a rescript of the Conference was received, appointing Count Saltykov as commander-in-chief, the Farmer received one of 3 divisions. Saltykov was ordered to unite with the Austrians at the point where the latter wished it, then he was ordered, “without obeying Down, to listen to his advice” - by no means sacrificing the army for the sake of Austrian interests - and, to top it all, not to engage in battle with superior forces.

Frederick II, confident in Down’s passivity, transferred 30,000 from the “Austrian” front to the “Russian” - and decided to defeat the Russians before uniting them with the Austrians. The Prussians acted sluggishly and missed an opportunity to defeat the Russian army piecemeal.

Not embarrassed by the presence of this strong enemy mass on his left flank, Saltykov moved on July 6 from Poznan in a southerly direction - to Karolat and Crossen to join the Austrians there. He had up to 40,000 combat troops under his command. The Russian army brilliantly carried out an extremely risky and courageous flank march, and Saltykov took measures in case the army was cut off from its base - Poznan.

P. S. Saltykov. Engraving

The Prussians hurried after Saltykov to get ahead of him at Crossen. On July 12, in the battle of Palzig, they were defeated and thrown back beyond the Oder - under the walls of the Krossen fortress. In the Battle of Palzig, 40,000 Russians with 186 guns fought with 28,000 Prussians. Against the linear battle formation of the latter, Saltykov used echeloning in depth and playing with reserves, which gave us victory, which, unfortunately, was not brought about by a sufficiently energetic pursuit of the enemy to the complete destruction of the Prussians.

Our damage was 894 killed, 3,897 wounded. The Prussians lost 9,000 people: 7,500 who dropped out in battle and 1,500 deserted. In fact, their damage was much more significant, and it can be assumed to be no less than 12,000; the killed Prussians alone were buried by the Russians, 4,228 bodies. 600 prisoners, 7 banners and standards, 14 guns were taken.

All this time, Down was inactive. The Austrian commander-in-chief based his plans on Russian blood. Fearing to enter into battle with Frederick, despite his double superiority in strength, Daun sought to bring the Russians under the first fire and pull them towards him - into the depths of Silesia. But Saltykov, who managed to “see through” his Austrian colleague, did not succumb to this “stratagem”, but decided after the Palzig victory to move on Frankfurt and threaten Berlin.

This movement of Saltykov equally alarmed both Friedrich and Daun. The Prussian king feared for his capital; the Austrian commander-in-chief did not want a victory won by the Russians alone without the participation of the Austrians (which could have important political consequences). Therefore, while Frederick concentrated his army in the Berlin region, Daun, “carefully guarding” the weak Prussian barrier left against him, moved Laudon’s corps towards Frankfurt, ordering him to warn the Russians there and profit from the indemnity. This cunning calculation did not come true: “Franfort” was already occupied by the Russians on July 19.

Having captured Frankfurt, Saltykov intended to move Rumyantsev with his cavalry to Berlin, but the appearance of Frederick there forced him to abandon this plan. Connected with Loudon, he had 58,000 men, with whom he took a strong position at Kunersdorf.

Against Frederick’s 50,000 Prussians in the Berlin region, three masses of allies were thus concentrated: from the east, 58,000 soldiers of Saltykov, 80 versts from Berlin; from the south 65,000 Down, 150 versts; from the west, 30,000 imperials, 100 versts away, Frederick decided to get out of this intolerable situation by attacking with all his forces the most dangerous enemy, the enemy who had most advanced, the most brave and skillful, and who, moreover, did not have the custom of evading battle, in short - the Russians.

Reitar Horse Regiment, 1742–1762 Colorized engraving

On August 1, he attacked Saltykov and in the fierce battle that took place at the Kunersdorf position - the famous “Battle of Franfort” - he was completely defeated, losing two-thirds of his army and all the artillery. Frederick intended to bypass the Russian army from the rear, as at Zorndorf, but Saltykov was not a Farmer: he immediately turned the front around. The Russian army was highly echeloned in depth on a relatively narrow front. Frederick shot down the first two lines, capturing up to 70 guns, but his attack floundered, and Seydlitz’s cavalry, which untimely rushed at the undisturbed Russian infantry, was killed. Having launched a crushing counter-offensive to the front and flank, the Russians overthrew Frederick’s army, and Rumyantsev’s cavalry completely finished off the Prussians, who fled wherever they could. Of the 48,000 people, the king was unable to gather even a tenth immediately after the battle! The Prussians show their final damage at 20,000 in the battle itself and over 2,000 deserters during flight. In fact, their loss should be at least 30,000. We buried 7,627 Prussian corpses on the spot, took over 4,500 prisoners, 29 banners and standards, and all 172 guns that were in the Prussian army. Russian damage - up to 13,500 people (a third of the army): 2,614 killed, 10,863 wounded. About 2,500 people died in Laudon's Austrian corps. In total, the Allies lost 16,000 people. Frederick II’s despair is best expressed in his letter to one of his childhood friends, written the next day: “From an army of 48,000, I don’t have even 3,000 left at this moment. Everything is running away, and I no longer have power over the army... In Berlin They will do well if they think about their safety. A cruel misfortune, I will not survive it. The consequences of the battle will be even worse than the battle itself: I have no more means, and, to tell the truth, I consider everything lost. I will not survive the loss of my fatherland. Do not see you again". The pursuit was short; After the battle, Saltykov had no more than 23,000 people left, and he could not reap the fruits of his brilliant victory.

Daun, consumed by envy of Saltykov, did nothing on his part to relieve him, and with idle “advice” he only annoyed the Russian commander-in-chief.

Frederick II came to his senses after Kunersdorf, gave up thoughts of suicide and again accepted the title of commander-in-chief (which he resigned on the evening of the “Battle of Franfort”); On August 18, Frederick already had 33,000 people near Berlin and could calmly look to the future. Down's inaction saved Prussia.

The Austrian commander-in-chief persuaded Saltykov to move to Silesia for a joint attack on Berlin, but one raid by the Prussian hussars to the rear was enough for Daun’s hasty retreat to his original position... He did not prepare the promised allowance for the Russians.

The indignant Saltykov decided to act on his own and headed towards the Glogau fortress, but Friedrich, having foreseen his intention, moved parallel to Saltykov in order to warn him. Both had 24,000 soldiers, and Saltykov decided not to get involved in battle this time: he considered it inappropriate to risk these troops 500 miles from his base. Frederick, remembering Kunersdorf, did not insist on battle. On September 14, the opponents dispersed, and on the 19th Saltykov retreated to winter quarters near the Warta River. The winner at Kunersdorf, who received the field marshal's baton, had the civil courage to prefer the interests of Russia to the interests of Austria and reject the demand of the Conference, which insisted on wintering in Silesia together with the Austrians and sending 20-30 thousand Russian infantry to the Loudoun corps. Having already arrived at Warta, Saltykov, at the insistence of the Austrians, showed that he was returning to Prussia. By this he saved the valiant Daun and his army of eighty thousand from the Prussian offensive that the Tsar's commander imagined.

Officer and sergeant of the life company, 1742–1762. Colorized engraving

The 1759 campaign could decide the fate of the Seven Years' War, and with it the fate of Prussia. Fortunately for Frederick, in addition to the Russians, he also had Austrians as opponents.

In the campaign of 1760, Saltykov intended to capture Danzig, Kolberg and Pomerania, and from there act on Berlin. But the “home-grown Austrians” at their Conference decided otherwise and again sent the Russian army “to run errands” for the Austrians in Silesia - the winners at Kunersdorf were all compared to the losers at Leuthen! At the same time, Saltykov was instructed to “make an attempt” to master Kohlberg - to act in two diametrically opposed operational directions. Saltykov's position was further complicated by the fact that the Austrians did not inform him of either Frederick's movements or their own. At the end of June, Saltykov, with 60,000 and a supply of provisions for 2 months, set out from Poznan and slowly moved towards Breslau, where, in the meantime, the Austrians of Laudon were heading. However, the Prussians forced Laudon to retreat from Breslau, and Frederick II, who arrived in Silesia, defeated him (August 4) at Liegnitz. Frederick II with 30,000 arrived from Saxony by forced march, covering 280 versts in 5 days (the army march was 56 versts). The Austrians demanded the transfer of Chernyshev's corps to the left bank of the Oder - into the jaws of the enemy, but Saltykov opposed this and retreated to Gernstadt, where the army stood until September 2. At the end of August, Saltykov fell dangerously ill and surrendered his command to Farmer, who first tried to besiege Glogau, and then on September 10 withdrew the army to Crossen, deciding to act according to circumstances. The following fact perfectly characterizes the Farmer. Laudon asked for his help in the proposed siege of Glogau.

The farmer, who did not take a step without the permission of the Conference, notified St. Petersburg about this. While communications and relationships were being written back and forth 1,500 miles away, Laudon changed his mind and decided to lay siege not to Glogau, but to Kempen, which he informed the Farmer about. In the meantime, a rescript from the Conference was issued, allowing movement to Glogau. The farmer, an overly well-disciplined commander, moved to Glogau, despite the fact that this movement, due to the changed situation, lost all meaning. Walking towards the fortress, the Farmer saw that it was impossible to take it without siege artillery. Chernyshev's corps with Totleben's cavalry and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks, a total of 23,000, half cavalry, was sent on a raid on Berlin.

Officer of the Prince William's Musketeer Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

Guards Grenadier Officer. Engraving

Oboist, flute player and drummer of the Musketeer Regiment, 1756–1761. Colorized engraving

Capture of the Kolberg fortress during the Seven Years' War. Artist A. Kotzebue

Flute player of the Life Guards Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1763–1786. Engraving

On September 23, Totleben attacked Berlin, but was repulsed, and on the 28th Berlin surrendered. In addition to 23,000 Russians, 14,000 Lassi Austrians took part in the raid on Berlin. The capital was defended by 14,000 Prussians, of whom 4,000 were taken prisoner. The mint and arsenal were destroyed and indemnities were taken. The Prussian “newspapers”, who, as we have seen, wrote all sorts of libels and fables about Russia and the Russian army, have been duly flogged. This event hardly made them special Russophiles, but it is one of the most comforting episodes in our history. After staying in the enemy capital for four days, Chernyshev and Totleben left there as Frederick approached. The raid had no important results.

When it became clear that any productive cooperation with the Austrians was impossible, the Conference returned to Saltykov’s original plan and ordered the Farmer to take possession of Kolberg in Pomerania. Busy organizing a raid on Berlin, Farmer moved the Olitz division to Kolberg. The new commander-in-chief, Field Marshal Buturlin, who arrived in the army (Saltykov was still ill), lifted the siege of Kolberg due to the late season and in October took the entire army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1760 did not bring results...

In 1761, following the example of a number of past campaigns, the Russian army was moved to Silesia to join the Austrians.

From Thorn she went her usual way to Poznan and Breslau, but at this last point she was forestalled by Frederick. Passing by Breslav, Buturlin contacted Loudon. The entire campaign took place in marches and maneuvers. On the night of August 29, Buturlin decided to attack Frederick near Hochkirchen, but the Prussian king, not relying on his own strength, avoided the battle. In September, Frederick II moved towards messages from the Austrians, but the Russians, quickly uniting with the latter, prevented him and forced Frederick to retreat to the fortified camp at Bunzelwitz. Then Buturlin, having reinforced Laudon with Chernyshev’s corps, retreated to Pomerania. On September 21, Loudon took Schweidnitz by storm, and the Russians especially distinguished themselves, and soon after that both sides went into winter quarters. During the assault on Schweidnitz, 2 Russian battalions were the first to ascend the ramparts, then opened the gates to the Austrians and stood in perfect order with a gun at their feet on the ramparts, while at their feet the Austrians indulged in revelry and robbery. The Allies lost 1,400 people. 2600 Prussians surrendered with 240 guns, 1400 were killed.

Rumyantsev's corps, operating separately from the main army, approached Kolberg on August 5 and besieged it. The fortress turned out to be strong, and the siege, carried out with the help of the fleet, lasted four months, accompanied at the same time by actions against Prussian partisans in the rear of the siege corps. Only the unyielding energy of Rumyantsev made it possible to bring the siege to an end - three times the convened military council spoke out in favor of retreat. Finally, on December 5, Kolberg surrendered, 5,000 prisoners, 20 banners, 173 guns were taken, and this was the last feat of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War.

The report of the surrender of Kolberg found Empress Elizabeth on her deathbed... Emperor Peter III, an ardent admirer of Frederick, who ascended the throne, immediately stopped hostilities with Prussia, returned to it all the conquered regions (East Prussia was under Russian citizenship for 4 years) and ordered Chernyshev’s corps to be with Prussian army. During the campaign of 1762 in the spring, Chernyshev’s corps raided Bohemia and regularly cut down yesterday’s Austrian allies, for whom the Russians at all times - and then especially - had contempt. When, at the beginning of July, Chernyshev received orders to return to Russia, where a coup was taking place at that time, Frederick begged him to stay for another “three days” - until the battle, which he fought on July 10 at Burkersdorf. The Russians did not participate in this battle, but their presence alone greatly frightened the Austrians, who still knew nothing about the events in St. Petersburg.

The Seven Years' War, which glorified Russian weapons, ended so sadly and unexpectedly for us.

Officer of Prince William's Grenadier Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

A war with Russia is a war where you know how to start, but you don’t know how it will end. Interrogation of the chief of staff of operational command and control of troops at the headquarters of the Supreme High Command of the German Armed Forces, Army General Alfred Jodl. It just so happened that