Stacking of goods. Ensuring safety during loading and unloading operations, labor protection during loading and unloading operations, rules for stacking goods in different containers Calculating the height of the load on a pallet for paint canisters

1.4 Methods for forming stacks of various cargoes, dimensions of stacks, dimensions of passages

Piece cargo, transported in containers or without packaging, is stored at ports in covered warehouses or in open areas in stacks of certain shapes and sizes. The cargo stack is formed depending on how the cargo arrives - individually or in packages. The area in a covered warehouse or open area intended for storing cargo must be cleared of debris, and the entrances to the area must be free. Regardless of the type of surface of the site or warehouse floor, all cargo must be placed on pallets - dry wooden boards, panels, bars, logs, etc. The size, shape and height of pallets are determined by the specific characteristics of the cargo, its shelf life and the condition of the warehouse area. Upon arrival at the port, each shipment of cargo is stored separately from one another. Stacks are formed by carload or by bill of lading; their shapes and sizes are determined by the characteristics of the cargo and the size of the storage areas in the port. In all cases of storage, it must be possible to check the condition of all cargo and access to any place in the stack, fire safety rules and occupational safety requirements must be observed. In covered warehouses, the distance between stacks and warehouse walls is 0.7 m; between stacks of cargo - at least 2 m; the width of transverse and longitudinal passages is assumed to be 3.5 m for the passage of loaders; main passages between groups of stacks - 6 m. The height of cargo storage depends on the strength of the container, the method of work and the permissible load on the warehouse floor. When manually stacking cargo, the height of the stack is usually 1.75-2 m, when mechanized - 3.5-5 m.

The formation and dismantling of a stack using a crane when port workers are on the stack should be done in layers over its entire area, and depending on the type of cargo and type of packaging, the following recesses are allowed: for bagged cargo - up to 1.5 m; bales (except rubber) - up to 1 m; rubber - up to 4 bales (according to stacking height); small box loads - up to 1.2 m; large boxes - 1 box; roll-and-barrel cargo - 1st place; cargo in packages - 1 package.

When storing piece goods, you should choose the design of the stack, determine its dimensions and the relative position of the stacks in the warehouse area. To resolve these issues, it is necessary to know the nature of the packaging of the cargo, the features of the counting of cargo packages, air humidity and the condition of the cargo itself. A stack of box bales consists of stacks, rows and tiers (Fig. 20). Cargo items of the same shape and size, stacked one on top of the other vertically, make up a stack of stacks, located along the length - its longitudinal rows, and along the width - transverse. The horizontal layer of the stack, limited by the height of the packages, is a tier or layer.

General cargo of regular geometric shape when stored individually is stacked in straight stacks (in even rows), i.e. Cargo items of the same size are stacked so that each overlying item coincides with the item lying below. In high stacks, a collapse is possible due to the fragility of the container or improper placement of cargo items. To avoid this, it is necessary to lay the outer rows of stacks with a slight slope towards the middle, for which purpose prismatic spacers are placed under them or “ligations” of the rows of the stack are made through two or three tiers with boards 2.5 cm thick. If there are no spacers, the stacks are laid out with ledges or offset to center of the stack for half the cargo space. When forming a stack, to ensure greater strength, the loads are stacked crosswise, reverse laying, tee or pentad. Cargo in faulty containers should be stored only in specially designated areas in separate stacks one row or bag high. Piece-by-piece storage of cargo has a number of disadvantages: the participation of a large number of workers in warehouse operations, the high labor intensity of transshipment work, the short service life of containers and significant losses of cargo due to numerous transshipments. With batch storage, these disadvantages are eliminated. There are various ways to form cargo into packages on flat pallets. The warehousing process is carried out by machines. Packages in the warehouse are installed at a height of up to four tiers. If the pallets are loaded with light cargo and their carrying capacity is not fully used, the packages can be installed in five tiers with a stack height of up to To ensure stability of the stack, the packages must be stacked in ledges. Storage of bagged cargo. When storing sack cargo, the bags are placed in closed, dry and clean warehouses separately from cargo with a specific odor. It is allowed to store bagged cargo in open areas, but the stacks must be covered with a tarpaulin. In all cases, stacks are formed on stockpiles. Stacking of sack cargo is carried out in the following ways: direct laying; with an offset to the floor of the bag, starting from the height of the stack; reverse laying, or crosswise; cells - tee, five, well. Stowing in a well ensures good ventilation of the cargo and is used if the cargo in the bags is wet and there is a danger of it warming up and spoiling. With the development of package transportation, ports have proposed various methods of forming bags into packages on flat pallets and in sling containers. Depending on the size of the bags, 15-60 bags can be placed on a pallet in 3-8 tiers. On the pallet, the bags are arranged in twos, threes in a bandage, four, five in a bandage, six in a bandage, eight in a bandage. Packages in sling containers can be formed similarly. Such packages are stacked 3-4 tiers high. Storage of boxed cargo. The conditions for storing cargo in boxes depend on the properties of the cargo. Most light weight boxes are stored indoors, while heavy duty and oversized boxes generally are not. required. When forming a stack individually, the boxes are stacked using the direct laying method or in a cage. The permissible loads per 1 m2 of warehouse or pier flooring should be taken into account. Boxes with glass are stored according to special rules. Packages of box cargo are formed by stacking boxes crosswise, tee-wise, or five-way, depending on the size of the boxes and the platforms on which they are placed. The boxes are placed in bags in parallel rows, tied together. When packaging goods in cardboard boxes, it is necessary to protect the corners of the package with cuttings of boards. When storing boxed cargo in packages formed on flat pallets, the latter are stacked in stacks on top of each other.

Storage of bale cargo. Cargo in bales makes up about 15-20% of the total volume of packaged cargo transshipped at seaports. Most bale cargo is exposed to atmospheric precipitation and is susceptible to contamination, so they must be stored in closed warehouses. For example, cotton, linen and other fibrous goods should generally be stored in dry warehouses or under sheds. Storage in open areas is also allowed, but the bales must be laid on special flooring and. the stacks are securely covered. Bale loads are stacked for the most part in the same way as box loads, however, due to the fact that cotton and other fibrous loads are classified as hazardous, appropriate fire safety regulations must be observed when storing them. Storage of roll-and-barrel cargo. Features of the formation of stacks of cargo in this category are determined by the properties of the contents of the barrels, their shape (cylindrical or conical), the location of the stopper (the stopper in the barrel should be at the top) and the means of mechanization with which the load is stacked. Drum loads are stacked in two ways; with installation of barrels on the end (vertical position) or on the generatrix (horizontal position). When stored on the end, the lower tier barrels must rest on the floor with the entire end part. The storage of barrels on the generatrix is carried out in even rows with spacers made of boards under each tier and wedging of the outer rows: with a “tee” - the barrels of the upper tier are placed in the recesses between the barrels of the lower one; “five-fold” - the upper tier barrel rests on four lower barrels. Container storage. The development of container transportation required the construction of specialized berths - container terminals (Fig. 23). The storage areas of sea container terminals reach 500 hectares and are equipped with high-performance transshipment equipment. The sea cargo front, where container ships are loaded (unloaded), usually has one to three berths located in a line. Its width reaches 15-50 m. Warehouse technological areas on the territory are planned to be of considerable depth (up to 1000 m). Depending on the technology used for cargo operations, a storage area and a container reception and delivery area are allocated in the warehouse technological area, container storage areas are located, special lanes are located for the movement of reloading machines to the sea cargo front within the technological areas. Picking warehouses are covered premises with an area of 10-40 thousand m2, most often located outside the terminal territory. The design of picking warehouses is very diverse in terms of layout and the presence of ramps. The height of the floor level of the warehouses ensures that containers standing on the chassis can be processed through transition bridges. At warehouses, arriving cargo is unloaded, sorted and assembled for loading into one-way containers. Warehouses are equipped with radio communications and television cameras that allow monitoring the progress of work.

Their high efficiency. 2. General characteristics of the enterprise, main activities, management structure 2.1 History of the enterprise “Minskzheldortrans” (Minsk mechanized loading and unloading distance) For the first time, loading and unloading operations by railway workers at the Minsk junction began in 1922 at the Minsk-passenger, Minsk stations -commodity, and since 1925 ...

The entry of a vessel into the ports of unloading and the parking of a vessel for unloading - includes operations and techniques similar to those that are performed when ships leave the port and their parking for loading. The technological process of port operation includes the following work processes: acceptance of cargo for transportation - operations and techniques: preparation of the port, its individual territories, berths, warehouses for acceptance of cargo; acceptance of cargo from...

Piece cargo, transported in containers or without packaging, are stored at ports in covered warehouses or in open areas in stacks of certain shapes and sizes. The cargo stack is formed depending on how the cargo arrives - individually or in packages. The area in a covered warehouse or open area intended for storing cargo must be cleared of debris, and the entrances to the area must be free. Regardless of the type of surface of the site or the floor of the warehouse, all cargo must be placed on pallets - dry wooden boards, panels, bars, logs, etc. The size, shape and height of pallets are determined by the specific characteristics of the cargo, its shelf life and the condition of the warehouse area. Upon receipt port, each consignment of cargo is stored separately from one another. Stacks are formed by carload or by bill of lading; their shapes and sizes are determined by the characteristics of the cargo and the size of the storage areas in the port. In all cases of storage, it must be possible to check the condition of all cargo and access to any place in the stack, fire safety rules and labor safety requirements must be observed. In covered warehouses, the distance between the stacks and the walls of the warehouse is 0.7 m; between stacks of cargo - at least 2 m; the width of transverse and longitudinal passages is assumed to be 3.5 m for the passage of loaders; main passages between groups of stacks - 6 m. The height of cargo storage depends on the strength of the container, the method of work and the permissible load on the warehouse floor. When manually stacking cargo, the height of the stack is usually 1.75-2 m, when mechanized - 3.5-5 m.

General cargo of regular geometric shape when stored individually is stacked in straight stacks (in even rows), i.e. Cargo items of the same size are stacked so that each overlying item coincides with the place below. In high stacks, due to the fragility of the container or improper stacking of the cargo items, a collapse is possible. To avoid this, it is necessary to lay the outer rows of stacks with a slight slope towards the middle, for which purpose prismatic spacers are placed under them or “ligations” of the rows of the stack are made through two or three tiers with boards 2.5 cm thick. If there are no spacers, the stacks are laid out with ledges or offset to the center of the stack is half the cargo space. When forming a stack, to ensure greater strength, the loads are laid crosswise, in reverse laying, in a tee or in a pentad. Cargo in faulty containers should be stored only in specially designated areas in separate stacks one row or package high. Piece-by-piece cargo storage has a number of disadvantages: the participation of a large number of workers V warehouse operations, high labor intensity of transshipment work, short service life of containers and significant losses of cargo due to numerous transshipments. With batch storage, these disadvantages are eliminated. Cargo can be formed into packages on flat pallets in various ways. The warehousing process is carried out by machines. Packages in the warehouse are installed at a height of up to four tiers. If the pallets are loaded with light cargo and their carrying capacity is not fully used, the packages can be installed in five tiers with a stack height of up to To ensure stability of the stack, the packages must be stacked in ledges. Storage of bagged cargo. When storing sack cargo, the bags are placed in closed, dry and clean warehouses separately from cargo with a specific odor. It is allowed to store bagged cargo in open areas, but the stacks must be covered with a tarpaulin. In all cases, stacks are formed on sub-stacks. Stacking of sack cargo is carried out in the following ways: direct laying; with an offset to the floor of the bag, starting from the height of the stack ; reverse laying, or crosswise; cells - tee, five, well. Stowing in a well ensures good ventilation of the cargo and is used if the cargo in the bags is wet and there is a danger of it warming up and spoiling. With the development of package transportation, ports have proposed various methods of forming bags into packages on flat pallets and in sling containers. Depending on the size of the bags, 15-60 bags can be placed on a pallet in 3-8 tiers. On the pallet, the bags are arranged in twos, threes in a bandage, four, five in a bandage, six in a bandage, eight in a bandage. Packages in sling containers can be formed similarly. Such packages are stacked 3-4 tiers high. Storage of box loads . The conditions for storing cargo in boxes depend on the properties of the cargo. Most light weight boxes are stored indoors, while heavy duty and oversized boxes generally are not. required. When forming a stack individually, the boxes are stacked using the direct laying method or in a cage. The permissible loads per 1 m2 of warehouse or pier flooring should be taken into account. Boxes with glass are stored according to special rules. Packages of box cargo are formed by stacking boxes crosswise, tee-wise, or five-way, depending on the size of the boxes and the platforms on which they are placed. The boxes are placed in bags in parallel rows, tied together. When packaging goods in cardboard boxes, it is necessary to protect the corners of the package with cuttings of boards. When storing boxed cargo in packages formed on flat pallets, the latter are stacked in stacks on top of each other.

Storage of bale cargo . Cargo in bales makes up about 15-20% of the total volume of packaged cargo transshipped at seaports. Most bale cargo is exposed to atmospheric precipitation and is susceptible to contamination, so they must be stored in closed warehouses. For example, cotton, linen and other fibrous goods should generally be stored in dry warehouses or under sheds. Storage in open areas is also allowed, but the bales must be laid on special flooring and. the stacks are securely covered. Bale loads are stacked for the most part in the same way as box loads, however, due to the fact that cotton and other fibrous loads are classified as hazardous, appropriate fire safety regulations must be observed when storing them. Storage of roll-and-barrels cargo . Features of the formation of stacks of cargo in this category are determined by the properties of the contents of the barrels, their shape (cylindrical or conical), the location of the stopper (the stopper in the barrel should be at the top) and the means of mechanization with which the load is stacked. Drum loads are stacked in two ways; with installation of barrels on the end (vertical position) or on the generatrix (horizontal position). When stored on the end, the lower tier barrels must rest on the floor with the entire end part. The storage of barrels on the generatrix is carried out in even rows with spacers made of boards under each tier and wedging of the outer rows: with a “tee” - the barrels of the upper tier are placed in the recesses between the barrels of the lower one; “five-fold” - the upper tier barrel rests on four lower barrels. Container storage The development of container transportation required the construction of specialized berths - container terminals (Fig. 23). The storage areas of sea container terminals reach 500 hectares and are equipped with high-performance transshipment equipment. The sea cargo front, where container ships are loaded (unloaded), usually has one to three berths located in a line. Its width reaches 15-50 m. Warehouse technological areas on the territory are planned to be of considerable depth (up to 1000 m). Depending on the technology used for cargo operations, a storage area and a container reception and delivery area are allocated in the warehouse technological area, container storage areas are located, special lanes are located for the movement of reloading machines to the sea cargo front within the technological areas. Picking warehouses are covered premises with an area of 10-40 thousand m2, most often located outside the terminal territory. The design of picking warehouses is very diverse in terms of layout and the presence of ramps. The height of the floor level of the warehouses ensures that containers standing on the chassis can be processed through transition bridges. At warehouses, arriving cargo is unloaded, sorted and assembled for loading into one-way containers. Warehouses are equipped with radio communications and television cameras that allow monitoring the progress of work.

TYPICAL TECHNOLOGICAL CARD (TTK)

LOADING AND UNLOADING AND STORAGE OF CARGO

STORAGE, SLINGING, LOADING AND UNLOADING TIMBER MATERIALS

1 AREA OF USE

A standard flow chart has been developed for storing, slinging, loading and unloading timber.

The TTK is intended to familiarize workers and engineers with the rules for the production of work, as well as for the purpose of using it in the development of work production projects, construction organization projects, and other organizational and technological documentation.

2. GENERAL PROVISIONS

Basic storage instructions

1. Materials and equipment should be placed on leveled and compacted areas, and in winter, on areas cleared of snow and ice.

Surface water drainage from storage areas must be organized using drainage ditches.

2. In the warehouse, between stacks, a passage of at least 1.0 m wide should be left, and when vehicles move through the storage area, a passage of at least 3.5 m wide should be left.

3. Products must be stored in stacks according to the same marks; the inscriptions of the marks should be facing towards the aisles and a gap of 5-10 cm should be left between them.

Stacks must be equipped with signs facing the aisles indicating the quantity and type of product.

4. Pads and gaskets in stacks should be placed in the same vertical plane, near the mounting loops, and their thickness when storing panels, blocks, etc. there should be 20 mm more than the protruding mounting loops.

The use of round gaskets when storing building materials in a stack is prohibited.

5. When performing work on a stack with a height of more than 1.5 m, it is necessary to use portable inventory ladders.

6. It is prohibited to lean (lean) materials and products against fences and elements of temporary and permanent structures.

7. The distance from stacks of materials and equipment to the edges of excavations (pits, trenches) must be determined based on the stability of the slopes (fastenings), as a rule, outside the collapse prism, but not less than 1.0 m from the edge of the natural slope or fastening of the excavation.

8. Materials and products should be stored no closer than 3.5 m from the building under construction.

9. When storing materials and products near railway tracks, the distance between the stacks and the nearest rail must be at least 2 m.

Timber storage

The storage area is cleared of dry grass, bark, and wood chips. The spacers are installed symmetrically to the longitudinal axis of the stack at a distance from the ends of the logs no more than 1 m on each side. Timber is laid with butts and tops in opposite directions and aligned with one side of the stack.

Block packages and block kits must contain lumber (blanks) of the same species, thickness, width and grade. Overlapping lumber is not allowed.

Round and sawn timber stored in stacks should be placed on stacked bases made of antiseptic pads (Fig. 1, 2) or prefabricated reinforced concrete elements with a height of at least 0.35 m.

Fig.1. Method of stacking block packages of round timber

Timber must be stacked correctly. The dimensions of round timber stacks should not exceed the length of the log in width and 100 m in length. Stacks should be formed into groups. The number of stacks in one group should not exceed 12 with a maximum group length of 150 m and a width of 15 m.

Fig.2. Lumber stacking base

The gaps between stacks in one group must be at least 2 m (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Arrangement of timber stacks in the warehouse (four stacks in a group)

During long-term storage, timber must be stacked and sorted in accordance with GOST 2292-88; In this case, the following requirements and rules must be observed:

Store round timber in stacks (Fig. 4), which ensure natural drying of the wood; install stops between the rows of timber against rolling out;

Fig.4. Round timber stack

Deciduous wood should be stacked before coniferous wood;

In case of dry storage method, debarked round materials should be placed in normal stacks, in which the assortments are stacked tightly in rows, or in sparse stacks with a distance between assortments in a row of at least 50 mm, with spacers made of healthy wood between the rows;

Lumber arriving at the warehouse in the summer should be stacked immediately if delivery is made in block packages, or no later than two days if delivery is made in bulk; At the same time, store pine lumber separately from spruce lumber;

Sawn timber of the highest grades (up to and including the second grade) with a moisture content of less than 25%, as well as dry lumber of hard deciduous species of the first grade, should be stored under sheds or in closed ventilated warehouses; dry lumber of other grades should be stored in open storage areas in dense stacks that provide protection from atmospheric conditions. precipitation;

Lumber with a moisture content of more than 25% should be stored in stacks that ensure natural drying; to protect stacks of lumber from exposure to direct sunlight and precipitation, install a continuous roof over the stacks;

Fig.5. Lumber

Fig.6. Dry timber, sleepers for manual laying

3. ORGANIZATION AND TECHNOLOGY OF WORK EXECUTION

Storage of logs and lumber

Logs and timber are stored in piles in the open air, and lumber intended for carpentry, parquet, and finishing work is stored under a canopy. Stacks of logs are laid on pads with a cross-section of at least 250x250 mm. The dimensions of the stacks depend on the type of warehouse and its equipment. For manual stacking, the height of the stack can be 2-3 m, for mechanized laying it is 8-10 m, the length is 100-120 m. The width of the stack is determined by the maximum length of the logs. The distance between individual stacks must be at least 1 m. Between groups of stacks, gaps with a width of at least 10 m are installed. Logs are stacked according to forest species, grade and thickness in various ways: cellular (Fig. 7, A), ordinary with gaskets (see Fig. 7, b), ordinary without gaskets (see Fig. 7, V), batch (see Fig. 7, G) in stacks.

Fig.7. Storage of logs and lumber:

A- cellular; b- ordinary with gaskets; V- ordinary without gaskets; G- batch; d- straight; e- cross stack

In a cage stack, the logs of each top row are placed perpendicular to the logs of each bottom row. This method of laying is mainly used for fastening unlined or stacked stacks (see Fig. 7, G). In a row stack, logs are stacked in parallel rows, separated from each other by spacers 60-80 mm thick. Row stacks have good air access and are convenient for loading. The batch stack is stored in separate rhombic or rectangular bags, which are separated by spacers. The advantage of this type of stacks is the convenience and speed of slinging logs in large quantities, maximum crane loading, but the disadvantage is the significant need for spacers. Bagged and unlined stacks are protected from rolling out with stops (see Fig. 7, A, G).

Lumber is stored straight (see Fig. 7, d) or cross (see Fig. 7, e) in stacks according to species, grade and thickness of wood. When laying directly between tiers of lumber, spacers 25-30 mm thick and 50-75 mm wide are placed every 1-2 m. To ensure through ventilation, lumber with high humidity is laid in horizontal rows with an interval of 150 mm, average humidity - 100 mm, and dry - 50 mm. The height of a manual stack should not exceed 3 m, and a mechanized stack should not exceed 8 m. Gaps of at least 2 m are left between stacks, and gaps between groups of stacks are at least 6 m.

Slinging logs, lumber and wooden products

Slinging logs and lumber. When loading and unloading, logs and lumber are slung using lifting means. Universal and lightweight slings are considered the simplest, most reliable and cheapest. Lifting logs with universal slings is shown in Fig. 8. The disadvantage of this method is the length of time it takes to hook and unfasten the load.

Fig.8. Log slinging:

A- universal slings; b- lightweight slings with a free hook; V- traverse with self-opening hinges; G- grab-traverse; 1 - steel ropes with loops; 2 - chains; 3 - hinges; 4 - folding hooks; 5 - weights; 6 - traverse; 7 - rocker; 8 - traverse beam; 9 - hook; 10 - lightweight sling; 11 - earring

For slinging logs and lumber, you can successfully use a sling with a free hook that can easily move along the rope depending on the size of the load being lifted. After lowering and stowing logs or lumber, the sling loop is quickly removed from the movable hook and easily pulled out from under the load. The device is very convenient to use and easy to manufacture.

A device with self-opening loops consists of steel ropes with loops, chains, folding hooks that rotate in hinges under the influence of loads, and a traverse suspended from the crane hook. The release of the logs occurs automatically after lowering the hook and placing them in place. In this case, the ropes, freed from tension, fall down. The folding hooks, under the influence of the weight of the weights, rotate in the hinges, and the loop of ropes slides off the hooks. To completely free the logs from the ropes, you need to lift the crane hook and pull the ends of the rope out from under the load.

Loading and unloading logs in batches. The advantage of the batch method of slinging logs is the maximum use of the power of lifting cranes. When loading and unloading logs in packages, it is advisable to use a special cross-beam gripper with two long lightweight slings.

To sling a package placed on a platform or in a stack, two diagonally located sling loops are removed from the traverse hooks, after which the crane hook is raised and the slings are pulled until they are completely pulled out from under the load.

Long round timber is bundled using multi-turn flexible slings. In these slings, the lower load-bearing part consists of short links made of strip steel and connected by quadrangular frames. The upper closing part is a chain with a lever lock. Load rings are attached to the end links of the load-bearing part. The cross-section of the package is oval. When placed in a carriage, it is flattened, ensuring good use of its capacity. Loading capacity of the sling is 5 tons, dead weight is 15 kg, maximum weight of the package is 10 tons, length of logs in the package is 4.5-6.5 m.

Piece-by-piece transportation of large-diameter logs is carried out using pincer grips or special hooks. The pincer gripper consists of a pair of levers and a traverse and is suitable for lifting one or two logs. A grab with pointed hooks attached in pairs to a group sling simultaneously lifts two, four, six or more short but thick logs. Logs are grabbed with pincer grips, they are unslinged using semi-automatic grips, and slinging with sharpened hooks is done manually.

Slinging boards, beams and sleepers. To sling such loads, in addition to conventional lifting means, a frame grip is used (Fig. 9). It consists of a frame, clamps, rope or chain braces. Suspensions are attached to the frame. The gripper is lowered onto a package of material intended for lifting, previously laid on pads.

Fig.9. Slinging boards, beams, sleepers with a frame grip:

1 - frame; 2 - clamps; 3 - chain stretchers; 4 - pendants

Metal bars are placed under the package, the ends of which are threaded into the loops of the pendants. The lifted load is tightly compressed by the levers, protecting it from falling apart when rocking. Packages of lumber that are not tied with rigid or semi-rigid devices can be handled using a special gripping device. The grip consists of two articulated four-links, connected at the top by an I-beam, and at the bottom by a U-shaped beam, covered with wood and serving as a clamp. In the middle part, the hinge system has two axles, to which hooks are suspended on chains. The ends of the slings are put on the hooks; their length should be equal to the perimeter of the package. The upper beam is suspended from the crane hook. When lifting, each four-link tends to fold and its lower beam presses on the package, ensuring its safe and reliable overload. The lifting capacity of the lifting device is 5 tons.

Reloading of packages of long round timber. To reload packages of round timber in semi-rigid slings, a semi-automatic gripping device is used, which consists of a traverse, which is suspended on the hook of a crane by means of cables and a ring. The hooks that engage with the package are attached to chains suspended from the bottom of the crossbeam. Two shafts are mounted in the traverse frame, on which levers with control cables are mounted. The shafts are connected by gear sectors and return springs. To control the hooks, a lock is installed on the traverse, which is connected to the shaft. When not working, the levers, under the influence of the mass of the load, are lowered to the lowest position, and the cables weaken. The hooks are free and, when aimed at the package, are inserted into the rings of a semi-rigid sling. After strapping, the package is moved by crane to a warehouse or rolling stock. When placed in place, the traverse is lowered down. In this case, the load chains weaken, the levers rotate under the action of springs, the rods rise and fix the lock in the upper position. When lifting the traverse, the control cables are tensioned and disengage the hooks from the sling eyes, and the grip is released from the load.

Overload short-length round timber. To reload short cargo - round timber - slings (Fig. 10) and containers are used. Special slings are pre-placed in measuring machines. The sling consists of two ropes. One of them with loops and thimbles at both ends is placed under the bag. Hooks with rollers in the eye of another rope are inserted into the loops of the first. During the lifting process, the bag is tightened. The rope is released during the process of putting the package in place by removing one of the hooks from the loop of the first rope.

Fig. 10. Handling of short-length round timber: A- slings pre-laid in a measuring machine; b- tightening of the package during the lifting process; V- grip with a “donuga” container; 1 - steel sling; 2 - traverse; 3 - rods; 4 - hooks that hook tubular angles at the bottom of the container

When reloading packages of round timber in special “donugi” containers, four steel slings are used, attached to a traverse suspended on a crane hook. Round steel rods are suspended from the bottom of the slings, which hook into tubular angles at the bottom of the container. The length of the rods must correspond to the height of the container.

Figure 11 shows methods of storing timber. When storing round timber (see Fig. 11, A) the storage area is cleared of dry grass, bark, wood chips or covered with a layer of sand, earth or gravel at least 150 mm thick. The spacers are installed symmetrically to the longitudinal axis of the stack no further than 1 m from the ends of the logs on each side. Timber is laid with butts and tops in opposite directions and aligned with one side of the stack. The ends of the timber should not protrude more than 0.5 m.

Fig. 11. Timber storage:

A- round wood; b- row laying of lumber; V- laying lumber in cages; G- dry timber, sleepers for manual laying; 1 - emphasis; - lining length; - length of lumber

Cargo stowage methods must ensure:

Stability of stacks, packages and loads in stacks;

Mechanized dismantling of stacks and lifting of cargo using mounted grippers of lifting and transport equipment;

Safety of workers on or near the stack;

Possibility of using and normal functioning of protective equipment for workers and fire fighting equipment;

Circulation of air flows during natural and artificial ventilation in closed warehouses;

Compliance with requirements for security zones of power lines, utility and power supply nodes.

4. WORK QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Requirements for storing lumber

Storage areas for forest materials should be located in non-watered areas. They should be carefully planned, cleared of vegetation, and in winter of snow, compacted and covered with a thin layer of quicklime. Leveling sites with sawdust, bark and other wood waste is not allowed.

In warehouses, it is necessary to install temporary roads with or without pavement, depending on the service life of the warehouse, with a gravel-sand or crushed stone base. If necessary, ditches should be installed to drain rain and flood waters. The width of access roads and the angles of their turns should be taken based on the technical characteristics of the transport and loading and unloading equipment used, but not less than 3 m, the width of passages between stacks - not less than 1 m. The site must be illuminated, fenced, have guard security, and equipped fire extinguishing means.

Timber must be stored in stacks and sorted. The stack of timber must have a sign indicating the number, species assortment, size, grade, quantity of timber, start and end time of stacking, mode and expected storage time.

The delivery and acceptance of wood contaminated with fungi into warehouses and construction sites is prohibited. Vehicles that previously transported wood infected with fungi must be thoroughly cleaned of wood chips and debris before loading healthy wood; they must be disinfected with a 3% antiseptic solution.

Timber stored in a warehouse must be systematically inspected, at least once a month. If fungi or mold deposits are found on wood, the stacks should be sorted out, the affected timber should be removed, and the area where the materials were stored should be disinfected in accordance with GOST requirements.

When transporting and storing timber, wooden products and structures, it is necessary to take measures against their moisture, warping, mechanical damage, cracking and contamination.

Wood products should be stored in dry, ventilated areas with a relative humidity of no more than 60%.

Timber storage

Round forest

Fig. 12. Round timber storage

The storage area is cleared of dry grass, bark, and wood chips.

The spacers are installed symmetrically to the longitudinal axis of the stack at a distance from the ends of the logs no more than 1 m on each side.

Timber is laid with butts and tops in opposite directions and aligned with one side of the stack.

Lumber storage

TIMBER

Fig. 13. Row stacking and cage stacking of lumber

TIMBER

Fig. 14. Storage of dry timber, sleepers during manual laying

Safety requirements for laying lumber, building materials, structures and products


Materials, products, equipment	Laying method	Maximum stacking height	Additional installation instructions
Round forest	Stacked		With spacers between the rows and installation of stops against rolling out. A stack width less than its height is not allowed
Lumber	Stacked		It is prohibited to lean or support the stack against products, walls or other fencing elements.
	a) ordinary laying	0.5 stack width
	b) placement in cells	1.0 stack width

5. NEED FOR MATERIAL AND TECHNICAL RESOURCES

Lumber

Different types of wood have different properties and are used for different purposes.

The most commonly used wood in construction is coniferous wood (pine, spruce, larch, cedar, fir), which are characterized by good external and mechanical properties: shine, beautiful texture, turpentine smell, microstructure from 3 to 25 annual layers per 1 cm of cut, quite high strength, low hardness, holds metal fasteners well. Coniferous species are not subject to bending, since they have a low ability to do so.

Deciduous trees (oak, ash, birch, linden, beech, etc.) have different properties. For example, oak wood is characterized by high strength and hardness, resistance to decay, and has a beautiful texture and color. Ash wood has similar properties. Ash is often used to make tool handles and stair railings.

Birch wood resists impact very well, is uniform in structure and color, but is susceptible to rotting. Peeled veneer, plywood, particle boards, furniture, and packaging are made from it. Birch wood is also used in construction.

Linden has low mechanical properties; its soft and light wood cuts well, cracks little and warps slightly. It is often used for wood carving, drawing boards, wooden utensils, pencils, etc.

Lumber that is used in construction has its own specific names. They differ depending on the thickness and the ratio of width to thickness.

For boards, this ratio should be no more than 2. The maximum thickness of boards is 100 mm.

If the thickness of the lumber does not exceed 100 mm, but the ratio of width to thickness is less than 2, the lumber is called timber.

Lumber with a thickness of more than 100 mm is called timber.

The maximum length of lumber made from deciduous trees is 5 m. Coniferous lumber can be longer - up to 6.5 m.

An external examination is enough to identify wood defects: knots, cross-layers, rot, wormholes.

A knot is the part of a branch enclosed in the wood of the trunk. When sawing wood, knots often end up on the surface. According to their shape and location relative to the edges of the board or beam, knots are divided into round, oval, oblong, face, edge, edge, stitched, end, scattered, group, branched (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15. Types of knots:

A- round; b- oval; V- oblong; G- plastic; d- edge; e- rib; and- stitched; h- group; And- branched

The presence of knots significantly reduces the strength of the wood, since it disrupts its uniformity, and if the knot is located perpendicular to the longitudinal axis (it is called a stepson), the board or beam is considered unsuitable for finishing work and critical sections of the structure. This wood belongs to the third grade.

Lumber with tobacco knots of light or dark brown color is also of low quality - they are easy to distinguish from others, since the wood in the knots easily breaks and grinds into powder. The presence of such knots is allowed only in third grade wood, and only if the size of the knot does not exceed V5 of the diameter* of the log.

________________

* The text corresponds to the original. - Database manufacturer's note.

Wood that is too knotty is not suitable for use. Depending on the density of knots, wood is divided into grades. In wood of the first grade, the diameter of the knot should not exceed part of the diameter of the log, in wood of the second grade - 1/3. If the wood has a knot density greater than one knot per 2 linear meters, it belongs to the third grade.

A sign of cross-layering is the spiral direction of external fibers and cracks. The presence of cross-layers sharply reduces (up to 90%) the strength of wood. For 1 m of length, the displacement should not exceed 1/3 of the diameter of the log, depending on the type of wood.

Sawn timber with cross-layers is therefore not used in floors and in general where even minor loads are possible.

A break in wood along the grain is called a crack. According to their location, cracks can be plate, edge and end, and by type - metic, frost, shrinkage and peeling. Types of cracks are shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16. Types of cracks in wood:

I - plastic; II - edge; III - end; A- methic; b- frosty; V- shrinkage cracks; G- thrashing

Cracks also greatly reduce the strength of lumber, so they are allowed only if the total depth of the cracks does not exceed -1/3 of the log diameter, depending on the type of wood. In this case, the length of each crack should not exceed 1/3-1/2 of the log diameter for the first and second grades, respectively.

Wood defects also include wormholes, that is, passages and holes made in the wood by insects. The degree of damage by a wormhole is determined by the depth of penetration into the wood mass and the diameter of the hole made.

If only the top layer of wood is affected by a wormhole and it has not yet penetrated deeply, the lumber can be used in construction, although with restrictions, since the wormhole also reduces the strength of the wood. When the wormhole penetrates deeply, the wood becomes loose and rotten.

Wood rot can be of several types, and not all of them completely destroy the wood. Rot is a consequence of a fungal disease of wood, and many wood fungi make wood completely unusable. But there are also those that, with proper processing and storage of wood, cease their effect. Rot can appear in wood even while the tree is not cut down, while still standing (for example, white, sieve, rotten rot), or already during storage in a warehouse (sapwood rot). You can get rid of rot by drying the wood well; its effect will not resume if the wood is stored correctly.

Lumber should be stored in stacks, and even before stacking, they need to be sorted by size. The stack must be constructed in such a way that air can freely pass through it. This is necessary for air drying the wood.

Depending on the thickness of the board, every 0.5-0.7 m between the boards stacked in a stack, it is necessary to lay spacers of such a size that a gap of 10 cm remains. The stack must be positioned in such a way that the long side of the boards is perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. To prevent the ends of thick boards and beams from cracking, they must be coated with lime.

Do not build a stack higher than 3 meters. Stacked wood should be protected from rain and other precipitation using a pitched roof made of roofing felt or roofing felt. It must overlap the stack by at least 0.5 m.

Based on resistance to damage and cracking, wood of different species is divided into two classes.

The wood of fir, birch, beech, hornbeam, maple, alder, poplar, and sycamore resists insect damage better than others. These tree species produce wood of the first class of resistance. Most conifers, as well as oak and ash, belong to the second class.

The following species resist fungal infection well: fir, oak, maple, elm species, sycamore, ash, which make up the first class of resistance. The second class includes: spruce, pine, larch, cedar, alder, aspen, poplar, birch, beech, hornbeam, linden.

The wood of spruce, pine, fir, alder, aspen, linden, poplar and birch resists cracking well - these are species belonging to the first class of resistance. The second includes larch, beech, hornbeam, elm, sycamore, maple, oak and ash wood.

The humidity of freshly cut pine and spruce wood is 50-60%. After 1.5-2 years of drying, its humidity decreases to 15-18%. The wood in this case is called semi-dry. Wood with less moisture is called dry. For work, you need to use wood with a moisture content of no more than 20%, otherwise it will be susceptible to rotting. It should be taken into account that under conditions of constant positive temperature, the moisture content of the wood decreases even more. Therefore, for internal doors, for example, dry wood should be used so that when drying, cracks and distortions do not appear in the door leaf.

Depending on the purpose of the structural element for which this or that lumber is used, it is necessary to determine its dimensions:

For rafters, beams of basement and interfloor floors, as well as treads of stairs and external platbands, second and third grade lumber with a thickness of 50 mm, a width of 150-180 mm and a length of 4.0-6.5 m is used;

For racks of frame walls, partitions, trim, crossbars, handrails, staircase railings and window sill boards - second and third grade, 50 mm thick, 100 mm wide and 2.7-6.5 m long;

For balusters of staircase railings and roof sheathing - second and third grade, 50 mm thick, 50 mm wide and 3.5-6.5 m long;

For frame wall posts, lower trim, rafter elements and finished flooring - second and third grade, 40 mm thick, 100-150 mm wide and 2.7-6.5 m long;

For cranial bars, roof sheathing and gable frames - third grade 40 mm thick, 50 mm wide and 1.5-6.5 m long;

For platbands for interior decoration of windows and doors - second grade, 25 mm thick, 80-150 mm wide and 2.4-6.5 m long;

For architectural elements of the facade, platbands and wall cladding - second grade with a thickness of 19 mm, a width of 50-150 mm and a length of 2.4-6.5 m;

For covering partitions and strips - third grade, 16 mm thick, 80-150 mm wide and 3.5-6.5 m long;

As tongue and groove boards for lining the ceiling, for cladding walls and gables - second grade, 16 mm thick, 80-150 mm wide and 3.5-6.5 m long.

To finish wooden elements, you can purchase shalevka 7-19 mm thick, 22-35 mm thick, thin and thick boards. Boards can be taken either clean-edged, having a rectangular cross-section along the entire length, or with a blunt or sharp wane, as well as unedged (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17. Types of lumber:

A- double-edged timber; b- three-edged beam; V- four-edged beam; G- unedged board; d- clean-edged board: 1 - plastic; 2 - edge; 3 - rib; 4 - end; e- edged board with blunt wane; and- edged board with sharp wane; h- block; And- both sexes croaker; To- both floors are planked; l- unedged sleeper; m- edged sleeper

To protect wood from rotting, antiseptics are used: in an aqueous solution - oil, in an organic solution - in the form of a paste. Antiseptics must be safe, easily penetrate the wood to the required depth, not wash out and not reduce the strength of the wood during impregnation. In addition, they are subject to the following requirements: antiseptics must be poisonous to fungi, be low-volatile, not cause metal corrosion, and have a low cost.

Oil antiseptics are highly toxic and completely destroy wood-destroying fungi, insects and marine woodworms. They are non-volatile and do not wash out of the wood. Oil antiseptics are used on a limited scale because they have a strong, unpleasant odor, paint the wood dark and increase its flammability.

Antiseptics dissolved in pentachlorophenol are used in carpentry. They are non-volatile and resistant to washing out; wood treated with them is well glued, polished and painted.

Table 5.1

Density of wood of various species, kg/m

For packaged and piece goods, stacking and racking methods are usually used.

To store goods packed in bags, bales, coolies, boxes, and barrels, stacking is used.

By forming a stack, they ensure its stability, permissible height and free access to goods. The height of the stack is determined by the properties of the product and its packaging, the capabilities of the stacker, and the maximum load per 1 square meter. m of floor, warehouse height.

Stacking is used in three variants: straight, cross-checkered, and reverse-checkered.

With straight stacking, more often used for stacking boxes and barrels of the same size, each box is placed strictly and evenly on the box in the bottom row. Increasing the stability of the stack is ensured by direct pyramidal stacking - there is one less place in each top row and each top place is installed on two lower ones.

Boxes of various sizes are placed in a cross cage. In this case, the upper drawers are laid across the lower ones.

As a rule, goods packed in bags are placed in the reverse cage - the top row of bags is placed on the bottom row in the reverse order.

When stacking goods, make sure that normal air circulation, sanitary and fire safety requirements are ensured in the warehouse - stacks are placed no closer than 0.5 m from the walls and 1.5 m from heating devices. Passages about 1.5 m wide are left between the stacks.

Stacked storage of goods placed on rack and box pallets allows for more efficient use of premises and the use of mechanisms.

With the rack storage method, goods on pallets, unpacked goods, as well as goods in individual packaging are placed in the cells of the racks.

Rack storage of goods on pallets is very convenient - with the help of stackers, pallets are stacked on shelves located at any height accessible to the mechanisms. On the lower shelves you can store goods that are selected manually, on the upper shelves you can store goods that are shipped entirely on a pallet.

When packing goods, the following requirements are observed:

Container places are laid with markings facing the aisle;

homogeneous goods are placed in racks on both sides of one aisle, so that during stacking and selection the transportation path is shorter;

if one cell is not enough for the entire quantity of goods of one name, the goods are placed in the next cells of the rack higher in the same vertical section, so that during stacking and selection the movement path is shorter, and the storage address differs only in the shelf number;

On the upper tiers of the racks, long-term storage goods are placed, as well as goods released from the warehouse in batches of at least a whole cargo space or pallet.
To store outerwear in warehouses, mechanized hangers are used. Bulk cargo is stored in bulk. Tanks, tanks and barrels are used to store liquids.

Goods are placed on racks, pallets, stacks, etc. The weight of cargo on a pallet must not exceed the rated load capacity of a standard pallet.

When placing goods indoors, the dimensions of the indents should be: from the walls of the room - 0.7 m, from heating devices - 0.2 - 0.5 m, from lighting sources - 0.5 m, from the floor - 0.15 - 0 ,30 m. The gaps in the stack should be: between boxes - 0.02 m, between pallets and containers - 0.05 - 0.10 m.

Notes:

It is allowed to install racks or stack goods with a distance from walls and wall columns of 0.05 - 0.10 m in cases where the space is not used for evacuating people.

The size of the space from heating appliances must be increased if the storage conditions of the goods require it.

When stacking loads, ensure the stability of the stack and the safety of people working on or near the stack.

It is not allowed to stack cargo in damaged or oversized containers, in containers with slippery surfaces, or in packaging that does not ensure the stability of the package.

The stowage of cargo must ensure its stability during storage and transportation, unloading of vehicles and dismantling of stacks, as well as the possibility of mechanized loading and unloading. Unstacking of cargo should only be done from top to bottom.

Loads in boxes and bags that are not formed into bags should be stacked in a bandage. To ensure stability of the stack, slats should be laid every 2 rows of boxes, and boards should be laid every 5 rows of bags.

The height of storage of containerized packaging and piece goods is determined based on the height of the room, the load on the floors, technical characteristics and means of mechanization, technological rules and storage conditions. The height of the stack when manually stacking packaged cargo in boxes weighing up to 50 kg, in bags up to 70 kg should not exceed 2 m.

The height of stacking barrels in a horizontal position (lying down) should be no more than 3 rows with the obligatory placement of spacers between the rows and wedging of all outer rows. When installing barrels standing up, the stacking height is allowed to be no more than 2 rows intertwined with laying boards of equal thickness between the rows.

Barrels with gasoline and other flammable liquids must be placed only lying down, in one row with the cap facing up.

The stack should not be stacked close to the stack to avoid collapses when dismantling the adjacent stack. The distance between rows of stacks must be determined taking into account the possibility of installing containers in a stack, removing containers from the stack using load-handling devices and ensuring the necessary fire breaks.

Loads stored in bulk should be stacked and stacked with a slope slope corresponding to the angle of repose for the given material. If necessary, such stacks should be fenced with protective bars.

Cargo in containers and bales must be stacked in stable stacks, the maximum height of which must not exceed the requirements defined by GOST 12.3.010.

Oversized and heavy cargo must be placed in one row on chocks.

Placed cargo must be stacked in such a way that there is no danger of them falling, tipping over, or falling apart, and that at the same time ensuring the accessibility and safety of their removal when being released into production or when loading for shipment.

Stacking of cargo on loading and unloading areas and in places of long-term and temporary storage, close to the walls of the building, columns and equipment, stack to stack is not allowed. The clearances between the load and the wall or column must be at least 1 m, between the load and the ceiling of the building - at least 1 m, between the load and the lamp - at least 0.5 m.

Loads in boxes or bales must be placed in stable stacks.

Loads in bags and sacks must be stacked in a bandage. The height of the stack during manual loading should not exceed 3 m, when using mechanisms for lifting the load - 6 m.

Cargoes in faulty or torn containers are not allowed for stacking.

Cargo stowage methods must ensure:

Stability of stacks, packages and loads in stacks;

mechanized dismantling of stacks and lifting of cargo using mounted grippers of lifting and transport equipment;

safety of those working on or near the stack;

the possibility of using and normal functioning of protective equipment for workers and fire fighting equipment;

circulation of air flows during natural and artificial ventilation in closed warehouses;

compliance with the requirements for security zones of power lines, utility and power supply nodes.
The placement of materials, containers with workpieces, parts and waste should be convenient for their mooring when using lifting devices and lifting vehicles.

Stacks of bulk cargo with slopes steeper than the angle of repose must be fenced with strong retaining walls.

When laying cargo (except for bulk cargo), measures must be taken to prevent them from pinching or freezing to the surface of the site.

The distances between rows of stacks must be determined taking into account the possibility of stacking, removing cargo from the stack using the lifting devices used and ensuring fire breaks.

Between stacks in warehouses and areas for temporary storage of goods, passages with a width of at least 1 m and passages, the width of which is determined by the dimensions of vehicles, transported goods and loading and unloading mechanisms, must be provided.

The height of the stack should be determined by the ratio of the maximum height of the stack to the shorter side of the base of the container: for non-separable containers, this value should be no more than 6; for folding containers - no more than 4.5.

When storing fruit and vegetable products, the following basic requirements must be met:

The distance from the bottom of the protruding storage structures to the top of the embankment must be at least 0.8 m, to the top of the stack - at least 0.3 m;

the distance of the stack from the wall, column, battery is at least 0.6 m in the storage room, 0.3 m in the refrigerator;

the distance in a stack between boxes is at least 0.02 m, between box pallets is at least 0.05 m;

the height of bulk storage should be no more than: potatoes - 5 m, cabbage, carrots - 3 m, beets - 4 m, onions - 3.5 m;

the height of storage in containers should be no more than: potatoes, cabbage, beets - 4.6 m, carrots, onions, apples, pears - 5.0 m, tomatoes, grapes, melons - 4.5 m;

the loading of storage rooms when storing in containers should be no more than: for potatoes - 0.5; for cabbage - 0.3; for carrots - 0.345; for beets - 0.46; for onions - 0.38; for apples, pears - 0.29; for melons - 0.4 tons per 1 cubic meter of chamber volume.
Containers for storing and transporting potatoes and vegetables must be designed for stacking them with a load in stacks of 5 tiers and have loops for slinging and supports for fixing when stacking.

The height of stacks when manually stacking packaged goods in boxes weighing up to 50 kg, in bags up to 70 kg, in barrels with extracts or bulk materials should not exceed 2 m, in barrels with fatty substances - 1.5 m.

The height of stacks during mechanized stacking of packaged goods in boxes weighing up to 50 kg should not exceed 3.6 m, in bags up to 70 kg - 3.8 m, in barrels with spark substances - 1.5 m, in barrels with extracts - 2.5 m, in barrels with bulk materials - 3.0 m.

Loads in paper bags should be loaded with boards between each row.

When manually stacking bags, no more than 8 rows can be stacked; when mechanized, no more than 12.

When storing boxes with fruits on pallets, the length of the stacks should be no more than 10 m, the height - no more than 4 m. Boxes with vegetables and fruits, when manually stacked, can be installed with a height of no more than 1.5 m.

Barrels must be stacked in a horizontal position (lying down) in no more than 3 rows in the form of a truncated pyramid with boards laid between each row and all outer rows wedged together. When installing barrels standing up, it is allowed to stack them in no more than 2 rows in a bandage with laying boards of equal thickness between the rows.

Small-sized barrels weighing up to 100 kg can be laid lying down in 6 rows, weighing from 100 to 150 kg - in no more than 4 rows.

Stacks of boxes more than 2.5 m high, barrels stacked in 2 rows or more, must be fenced. The distance from the fence to the stack must be at least 1.5 m.

Oils and greases in warehouses should be stored on racks of no more than three tiers and no more than 10 barrels along the length of the stack. Wooden spacers must be installed under the barrels. There must be a passage of at least 1.8 m between the racks.

The problem is usually formulated as follows: There is a load packed in boxes. You need to transport him. The carrier requires that this cargo be installed on pallets (pallets) to eliminate manual labor during loading/unloading and safe transportation. How tall can such a cargo space be made? Or what is the maximum number of boxes that can be placed on a pallet so that the formed cargo space fits into the body of a car without the lower rows of boxes being crushed by the weight of the upper ones?

Which box should I choose? Selecting the box size.

For example, you need to pack a certain amount of caramel candies in bulk onto a pallet, which must first be placed into boxes of a certain size and capacity, and then the full boxes must be placed on a pallet (pallet) for further safe transportation. Candies, like boxes, have their own weight. In addition, the boxes have a certain strength, which is very important in this task. Pallets have standard sizes (useful area), on which only a certain number of boxes can be installed.

How much does the box itself weigh? We cut a square meter by meter out of cardboard and weigh it, we get the weight of a square meter of cardboard, equal, in our case, to 350 grams. We calculate the surface area of the box or the development area in square meters. Multiplying the unwrapped area by the weight (although this is not weight, but density) 350 grams = we get the weight of the box.

By multiplying the height, length and width of the box, we calculate the volume of the box. In our case, we miss the fact that in the calculation we use the outer dimensions of the box, since the thickness of the cardboard is very small in relation to other initial data, so we will not take into account the thickness of the walls.

When carrying out any calculation, one must take into account the fact that there is such a thing as system units (SI). And if we operate with data in different units of measurement, then in the process of calculation we need to reduce all units of measurement to the same ones. The SI system uses meters and kilograms as standard units. We will bring everything to them.

How much do candies weigh when packed in a box? For caramel candies, we take the caramel material from which candies are made and pour it into some conditionally weightless cubic form with side dimensions of 1 meter x 1 meter x 1 meter and weigh it. We get the weight (although, again, no, not the weight, but the density) of caramel candies. And this value is equal to 1220 kg/cubic meter (kg/m3).

Due to the fact that candies in nature have a shape convenient for eating, and not for transportation and storage, this shape does not allow them to be packed tightly (the void between loosely poured candies in a box weighs nothing), and we determined the density of candies theoretically using pure caramel, without wrappers, and even in liquid form, in order to achieve the most accurate determination of density) - we introduce a correction factor of 0.93, which takes into account the looseness of the stacking (that very weightless air between the candies). The “net density” indicator of 1220 is, as mentioned above, a theoretical value.

By multiplying these three parameters: 1220 (“net” density of candies) by the volume of the box and then by the coefficient 0.93 described above, we calculate the real weight of the candies in the box, adding to this parameter the weight of the box itself, we get the value with which we will work further - weight of a box filled with sweets. You don’t have to complicate things, just weigh the box along with the sweets and calculate how much 1 cubic meter weighs. For example, a box with a volume of 0.75 cubic meters. weighs 3 kg, therefore 1 cubic meter. weighs 3/0.75 kg.

So, we have calculated the weight of the filled box. Now all the boxes need to be loaded onto a pallet. But in how many rows (“floors”) can this be done so that the boxes do not break under the weight of the upper floors?

It is necessary to calculate the strength of the boxes. To calculate the strength (and we need to calculate exactly box strength), it is necessary to resort to bringing into the calculation a number of additional data and correction factors, namely:

Characteristics of cardboard boxes:

Let's calculate the area, weight and volume of the boxes:

Loading candies into boxes

We calculate the weight of sweets in each box. To do this, we take reference data on the density of candies and the volume of the box, which we have already calculated.

Thus, the weight of candies in one box will be: the weight of candies is calculated by the formula $(G = ρ*V*λ)$ the weight of candies together with the box is calculated by the formula $(m = M+G)$

Box	Candy weight		Weight of chocolates with box
1	$(G_1 = \text(1200 * 0.021 *0.93) =)$	$(\text(23,910)\,kg.)$	$(m_1 = \text(23.910 + 0.173) = )$	$(\text(24,083)\,kg.)$
2	$( G_2 = \text(1220 * 0.0026 * 0.93) =)$	$(\text(2,905)\,kg.)$	$(m_2 = \text(2.905 + 0.0403) = )$	$( \text(2,945)\,kg.)$

Packing strength

Based on the above calculations, we calculated the weight of the boxes. Now you need to calculate their strength. To do this, we take reference data about the material from which our boxes are made. This data is the same for Box_1 and Box_2 because the boxes are made of the same material:

We calculate the resistance to end compression

The resistance to mechanical compression of the material $(P_m\,N/m)$ is the maximum permissible load that our boxes can withstand with a vertical load on them or the compressive force acting on a cardboard box of sweets measured in Newtons. To calculate the maximum permissible load on the box, the following formula: $(P_(m) = K_(zap) \cdot g \cdot m \cdot \dfrac(H-h)(2.55) \cdot h \cdot \sqrt( \delta \ cdot Z ))$ This formula is the following: $(g \cdot m)$ Starting from this moment, we exclude the concepts of “weight” and “mass” from our vocabulary and introduce the concept of “load”. We mentioned above that all units of measurement used in the calculation must be reduced to a common denominator. Since we have a new quantity - load (force) and it is calculated in kilonewtons - we will adapt to it. The gravitational acceleration $(g)$ multiplied by the mass of the box $(m)$ converts simply the mass of the box into a load. And this load (aka force), due to the presence of gravity on planet Earth, is directed vertically downward and aims to crush the box no matter what. And the larger it is, the more difficult it is for the box. $(H-h)$. This calculation calculates the distance from the top of a stack of boxes to the top of the lowest box. The one that takes the load from everything that presses on it from above. $( \sqrt( \delta \cdot Z ))$. This calculation takes into account the distribution of the load calculated in the numerator over the total area of the ends of the walls of our box. $(h)$ the height parameter $(h)$ is present in the denominator of the formula under consideration for the reason that we consider the load in this formula. Therefore, height also has to be taken into account.

In the process of evolution, humanity strives to measure, touch and weigh everything and everyone. Those quantities that cannot be measured, touched or weighed are determined by scientists using the method of repeated observations. Based on such observations, assumptions are made about various correction factors (for example, such as the box filling leakage coefficient of 0.93 described above or the safety factor of 1.65, as well as the empirical coefficient of 2.55).

Data and calculated value:

Calculation of the maximum permissible height for stacking boxes on a pallet

The maximum permissible storage height $(H_(max))$ is calculated using the formula: $(H_(max) = \dfrac( 2.55 \cdot P_m \cdot \sqrt(\delta \cdot Z) + K_(zap) \ cdot g \cdot m )( K_(zap) \cdot g \cdot m ) )$ In the numerator: empirical coefficient 2.55, maximum permissible load calculated above $(P_m)$, $( \sqrt( \delta \cdot Z ))$ takes into account the distribution of the load on the total area of the ends of the box, with the addition of the moment of force $(g \cdot m)$, multiplied by a safety factor of 1.65. In the denominator: safety factor 1.65 multiplied by the moment of force $(g \cdot m)$.

We get:
For Box_1 $(H_(1) = 1.002\,m)$.
For Box_2 $(H_(2) = 1.001\,m)$ .

Laying boxes on a pallet (pallet).

Each box in which we packed the candies, as we already know, has the following dimensions:

The pallet (pallet) on which we will place our boxes of sweets has the following dimensions:
Pallet width $(W_p)$ = 800 mm
Pallet length $(L_p)$ = 1200 mm

We build (graphically) a pallet loading diagram to calculate the number of boxes_1 in one row.
Boxes_1 protrude beyond the perimeter of the pallet, but according to the standards, such protrusion is permissible no more than 20 mm per side. We check compliance with the standards: $(\text(Protrusion) = \dfrac(L_k \cdot 2 - W_p)(2) \,mm = 12< 20 \,мм}$. Условие выполняется.

Number of boxes_1 in a row: $(D_1 = 6 \,pcs.)$
Number of boxes_1 on a pallet: $(S_1 = \dfrac(H)(h_k) \cdot D_1 = 36 \, pcs.)$
Total weight of boxes_1 on one pallet: $(M_(1) = S_1 \cdot m_1 = \text( 36 * 24.083) = 866.988 \.kg.)$
Weight of candies on a pallet (net weight) packed in boxes_1: $( \text( 36 * 23,910) = 860.76 \, kg.)$

We build (graphically) a pallet loading diagram to calculate the number of boxes_2 in one row.
Number of boxes_2 in a row: $(D_2 = 35 \,pcs.)$
Number of boxes_2 on a pallet: $(S_2 = \dfrac(H)(h_k) \cdot D_2 = 350 \, pcs.)$
Total weight of boxes_2 on one pallet: $(M_(2) = S_2 \cdot m_2 = \text( 350 * 2,945) = 1030.75 \,kg.)$
Weight of candies on a pallet (net weight) packed in boxes_2: $( \text( 350 * 2,905) = 1016.75 \, kg.)$

It can be seen that if you put the candies in boxes_2, then on one pallet you can take away $(\text(155.99)\,kg.)$ more. A standard semi-trailer can accommodate 34 Euro pallets. In one truck, the useful transported weight in boxes_2 will be already 5300 kg. more. But it’s too early to rejoice: the maximum weight of cargo in a standard truck (truck with a trailer) cannot exceed 21,000 kg. Therefore, there is no point in pushing so hard and loading the maximum weight onto the pallet. Only 24 pallets of boxes can be loaded onto a truck_1.

Calculation of the height of the load on a pallet for paint canisters.

We have a number of plastic canisters with paint that need to be placed on a standard Euro pallet for their further safe transportation. We know the volume and weight of paint in each canister and the dimensions and weight of the canister.

Paint density $(p_k = 1400\,kg/m3)$
Weight of paint in the bucket $(G_k = p_k \cdot V_k = 1400 \cdot 0.01 = 14 \,kg)$
Weight of the paint canister $(m_1 = G_k +m_k = 14 + 0.38 = 14.38 kg)$

Strength of plastic canister (packaging)

The maximum load on the lower tier when stacking (declared by the container manufacturer) is $(G_(max) = 20 kg.)$
Thus, the maximum permissible pallet loading height will be (rounded down to the nearest whole number) $(H_(extra) = \dfrac (G_(max))(m_1) +1 = 2)$ row.

Number of canisters in a row $(G_p = 20 \,(pcs))$
Weight of one row $(M_p = G_p \cdot m_1 = 20 \cdot 14.38 = 287.6 \,kg)$
Height of cargo on a pallet $(H_gr = h_k \cdot H_(extra) = 0.544 \,m)$
Total number of canisters on a pallet $(Q_k = G_p \cdot H_(extra) = 40 \,(pcs))$
Total weight of cargo on a pallet $(G_(total) = Q_k \cdot m_1 = 40 \cdot 14.38 = 257.2 \.kg)$

Terms and concepts

Fill heterogeneity coefficient$( \lambda \, \text(%))$ is a factor that takes into account the void between the material.

Safety factor$(K_(zap))$ is a value showing the ability of a structure to withstand loads applied to it above the calculated ones. The presence of a reserve provides additional reliability of the design to avoid disaster in the event of possible design, manufacturing or operating errors. . The safety factor of a cardboard box depends on the duration of storage and is equal to:

1.6 (with a shelf life of less than 30 days);
1.65 (from 31 to 100 days);
1.85 (if the shelf life is not limited).

How is the Factor of Safety calculated? They take boxes of candy (for example) and begin to pile them one on top of the other in a stack that reaches to the sky. To the question of honest people passing by, “Won’t it come true?” Theoretic loaders answer succinctly, briefly and precisely - “It shouldn’t!” And when, after the 16th box placed on a stack, the bottom one turns into a pancake (this is not an annoyance, but the fact that they bake for Maslenitsa) under the irresistible force of merciless gravity, one of the loaders pulls out of the pocket of his greasy robe a tattered notebook, a stub of a pencil and He writes something into it in uneven handwriting, muttering to himself “that’s how we’ll write it down, the safety factor is 1.6...”

Maximum permissible stacking height. A reference value established for reasons of expediency and convenience of storage and transportation. The distance between the shelves of the racks in the warehouse and the height of the cargo compartment of the vehicles are taken into account.

End compression resistance. This indicator provides the maximum load (applied force) that the box material (brown cardboard) can withstand if a force, expressed in kilonewtons per meter (kN/m), is applied to a cardboard sheet placed on its edge. This parameter is equal to the moment of force (kN) relative to a point located at a distance of 1 meter from the line of action of the force.

Forwarder or carrier? Three secrets and international cargo transportation

Forwarder or carrier: who to choose? If the carrier is good and the forwarder is bad, then the first. If the carrier is bad and the forwarder is good, then the latter. This choice is simple. But how can you decide when both candidates are good? How to choose from two seemingly equivalent options? The fact is that these options are not equivalent.

Horror stories of international transport

BETWEEN A HAMMER AND A HILL.

It is not easy to live between the customer of transportation and the very cunning and economical owner of the cargo. One day we received an order. Freight for three kopecks, additional conditions for two sheets, the collection is called.... Loading on Wednesday. The car is already in place on Tuesday, and by lunchtime the next day the warehouse begins to slowly throw into the trailer everything that your forwarder has collected for its recipient customers.

AN ENCHANTED PLACE - PTO KOZLOVICHY.

According to legends and experience, everyone who transported goods from Europe by road knows what a terrible place the Kozlovichi VET, Brest Customs, is. What chaos the Belarusian customs officers create, they find fault in every possible way and charge exorbitant prices. And it is true. But not all...

ON THE NEW YEAR'S TIME WE WERE BRINGING POWDERED MILK.

Loading with groupage cargo at a consolidation warehouse in Germany. One of the cargoes is milk powder from Italy, the delivery of which was ordered by the Forwarder.... A classic example of the work of a forwarder-“transmitter” (he doesn’t delve into anything, he just transmits along the chain).

Documents for international transport

International road transport of goods is very organized and bureaucratic; as a result, a bunch of unified documents are used to carry out international road transport of goods. It doesn’t matter if it’s a customs carrier or an ordinary one - he won’t travel without documents. Although this is not very exciting, we tried to simply explain the purpose of these documents and the meaning that they have. They gave an example of filling out TIR, CMR, T1, EX1, Invoice, Packing List...

Axle load calculation for road freight transport

The goal is to study the possibility of redistributing loads on the axles of the tractor and semi-trailer when the location of the cargo in the semi-trailer changes. And applying this knowledge in practice.

In the system we are considering there are 3 objects: a tractor $(T)$, a semi-trailer $(\large ((p.p.)))$ and a load $(\large (gr))$. All variables related to each of these objects will be marked with the superscript $T$, $(\large (p.p.))$ and $(\large (gr))$ respectively. For example, the tare weight of a tractor will be denoted as $m^(T)$.

Why don't you eat fly agarics? The customs officer exhaled a sigh of sadness.

What is happening in the international road transport market? The Federal Customs Service of the Russian Federation has already banned the issuance of TIR Carnets without additional guarantees in several federal districts. And she notified that from December 1 of this year she will completely terminate the agreement with the IRU as not meeting the requirements of the Customs Union and is putting forward financial claims that are not childish.
IRU in response: “The explanations of the Federal Customs Service of Russia regarding the alleged debt of ASMAP in the amount of 20 billion rubles are a complete fiction, since all the old TIR claims have been fully settled..... What do we, common carriers, think?

Stowage Factor Weight and volume of cargo when calculating the cost of transportation

The calculation of the cost of transportation depends on the weight and volume of the cargo. For sea transport, volume is most often decisive, for air transport - weight. For road transport of goods, a complex indicator is important. Which parameter for calculations will be chosen in a particular case depends on specific gravity of the cargo (Stowage Factor) .