Pledge is a constant lexical-grammatical category of a verb, which expresses the relationship between the action called the verb, the subject and the object of this action (expressed by the subject and objects).

Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic.

By morphological means in the formation of collateral the following are used:

postfix -xia, attached to a verb: to please - to rejoice;

suffixes of active and passive participles ( seer - seen And visible - seen).

By syntactic means expressions of pledge values ​​are:

syntactic difference in the expression of the subject and object of an action ( Waves wash away the shore.- The shore is washed away by the waves);

the presence of an object of action or its complete absence ( Rain increases harvest. — It's starting to rain.);

difference in forms and meanings of verb-controlled nouns ( The contract is concluded by the boss. — The contract is concluded with the boss).

Types of collateral: active, reflexive and passive.

Active voice have transitive verbs, denoting an action performed by the subject and actively aimed at the object. The active voice has a syntactic characteristic: the subject of the action is the subject, and the object is the object in the accusative case without a preposition: Beauty will save the world.

Average refundable deposit have verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) using a postfix -xia. They express the action of the subject, which does not transfer to a direct object, but, as it were, returns to the subject itself, concentrated in it. For example: return log And come back(himself) concentrate attention And to focus on(to himself).

Depending on the lexical meaning of the stems and the nature of syntactic connections verbs of the middle reflexive voice can express shades of meaning that differently characterize the relationship between the subject and the object of the action.

Self-reflexive verbs express an action whose subject and object coincide, i.e. are the same person: Zhenya got dressed quickly. Postfix -xia in these verbs it means "oneself".

Reflexive Verbs denote the action of several persons directed at each other, i.e. joint action of several subjects. Postfix -xia such verbs have the meaning “each other”: kiss, hug, make up, quarrel, meet.

Reflexive verbs express the internal state of the subject, closed in the subject itself, or a change in the state, position, movement of the subject: worry, be surprised, be frightened, to be upset, to move.

Indirect reflexive verbs denote an action performed by a subject in his own interests, for himself: build, stock up, pack, tidy up.

Objectless reflexive verbs denote an action outside of relation to an object, closed in the subject as its constant property: Nettle stings, dogs bite, cats scratch.

Passive voice- this is a form of a verb showing that the person or object acting as the subject in a sentence does not perform an action (are not its subject), but experience someone else’s action (are its object). The passive voice is similar in meaning to the active voice, but has its own morphological and syntactic characteristics.

Passive voice is expressed by adding a postfix to active voice verbs. -xia (Workers are building houses. — Houses are built by workers). In addition, the meaning of the passive voice can be expressed by forms of passive participles - full and short.

For example: Mother is loved(darling).Topic studied(studied).

Design comparison - Factory fulfills plan(actual construction) and The plan is executed by the factory(passive construction) shows that in the active construction the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object by the object in the accusative case, and in the passive the object becomes the subject, and the former subject turns out to be the object in the instrumental case.

Thus, the passive voice represents the action as passively directed from the object to the subject. The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is instrumental case a noun with the meaning of a real subject of action. The absence of the instrumental case brings the passive meaning of the verb closer to the neuter reflexive, especially when the subject is the name of a person ( Skiers go hiking; Letters are sent by mail; Parcels are sent by a forwarder).

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From the history. Category voice has been and remains to this day the subject of close attention of many linguists. “...Different grammarians had different understandings of the scope and grammatical content of the category of voice; Some saw in the pledge only a reflection of the relationship of the action to the object, others included in the circle of pledge meanings, in addition to object relations, various relations of the action to the subject, and still others sought to limit the concept of pledge to the expression of the relationship to the subject.”

The traditional doctrine of pledges, leading from the six pledges of M.V. Lomonosov, preserved until the beginning of the 19th century. and ends with the works of F.I. Buslaev, from whom this theory receives the most profound development.

The category of voice by linguists of this period is understood as a category that expresses the relationship of an action to an object. In this regard, the concepts of voice and transitivity-intransitivity were identified. In parallel with transitivity-intransitivity, another principle was used as the basis for distinguishing voice - the distinction between verbs with the affix -sya and verbs without this affix. The confusion of these two principles did not make it possible to construct a consistent theory of collateral.

F.F. Fortunatov in his article “On the Voices of the Russian Verb” talks about voices as verbal forms that express the relationship of the action to the subject. Instead of the lexico-syntactic principle of F.F. Fortunatov based the classification of voices on the grammatical correlation of forms. The formal sign of voice is the affix -xia, therefore, two collaterals are allocated (refundable and non-refundable). F.F. Fortunatov refuses to identify voice and transitivity-intransitivity, but points out the connection of voice meanings with the meanings of transitivity-intransitivity.

Other researchers (A.A. Potebnya, A.A. Shakhmatov) considered pledge as a category expressing subject-object relations.

A.A. Shakhmatov bases his doctrine of voice on the sign of transitivity-intransitivity and identifies three voices (active, passive, reflexive). Shakhmatov gives a subtle analysis of the basic meanings of the affix -xia for reflexive verbs.

Transitive and intransitive verbs. Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of this distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb. TO transitional include verbs with the meaning of an action directed at an object, changing or producing this object - the object of the action: read a book, widen a sleeve, sew a suit. TO intransitive include verbs denoting movement and position in space, physical and moral state, for example: fly, get sick, stand, suffer. The lexical meaning of transitive and intransitive verbs is associated with their syntactic difference: transitive verbs are combined with the designation of an object in the accusative case without a preposition, and intransitive verbs require an object only in indirect cases without a preposition or with prepositions; compare: be in love(who? what?) - transitive verb, to help(to whom? what?) is an intransitive verb. With transitive verbs, the object of the action can be expressed in the genitive case in two cases: a) to indicate part of the object: drink water, buy bread; b) if there is a negation of the verb: did not read newspapers, did not receive wages, has no right. Typically, transitive and intransitive verbs do not have their own special morphological features. However, some types of word formation of verbs are indicators of the transitivity and intransitivity of the verb. Thus, all verbs with the affix are classified as intransitive -xia(cf.: convince - make sure), as well as denominative verbs with the suffix -e- And -nicha-(-icha-): to become weak, to go bald, to be greedy, to be picky and so on. Transitive verbs include verbs formed from adjectives with the suffix -and-: blacken, green and so on. In some cases, attaching prefixes to intransitive unprefixed verbs turns them into transitive ones; compare: harm(to whom; to what?), render harmless(who? what?). Depending on the lexical meaning, the same verb can act as transitive and intransitive: Editoredits the manuscript. - Rules the worldthe man himself(M.). With intransitive verbs, the accusative case is possible without a preposition, but exclusively with the meaning of space or time: The troops are comingdayAndnight(P.).

The grammatical category of voice is a verbal category that expresses the relationship of an action to the subject (producer of the action) and the object of the action (the object on which the action is performed). For example: 1) General sharplystoppedcar near your tent(Cat.). The verb stopped has a voice form that expresses the attitude of action ( stopped) to subject ( general) and action object ( car), covered by the action in full; 2) ...A small cart drawn by three exhausted horses,stoppedin front of the porch(T.). Voice form of the verb stopped denotes an action that is locked in the subject itself ( cart), which does not transfer to the object. Difference between verb forms stopped And stopped in the above sentences there is a collateral difference.

Pledges and their formation. Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. Morphological means in the formation of voices are: a) affix -xia, attached to a verb: rejoice - rejoice; b) suffixes of active and passive participles (cf.: seer -having seen And visible - seen). Syntactic means of expressing collateral meanings are: a) syntactic difference in the expression of the subject and object of the action (cf.: Wavesblurredshore.- shoreblurredwaves); b) the presence of the object of action and its complete absence (cf.: Rainincreasesharvest. - Rainbegins); c) the difference in forms and meanings of verb-controlled nouns (cf.: The contract is concludedforeman. - The contract is concludedwith the foreman).

The main voices are: active, intermediate and passive.

Active voice have transitive verbs, denoting an action performed by the subject and actively aimed at the object. The active voice has a syntactic characteristic: the subject of the action is the subject, and the object is the object in the accusative case without a preposition: Peace will win the war.

Average refundable deposit have verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) by means of an affix -xia. They express the action of the subject, which does not transfer to a direct object, but, as it were, returns to the subject itself, concentrated in it; compare: return the book And come back(himself) pay attention And concentrate(to himself).

Depending on the lexical meaning of the stems and the nature of the syntactic connections, verbs of the mid-reflexive voice can express shades of meaning that differently characterize the relationship between the subject and the object of the action.

Self-returnable verbs express an action whose subject and direct object are the same person: [Daughters] perfume themselvesYesput on lipstickthat dollsdress up(D. Bed.). Affix -xia in these verbs it means “oneself”.

Reciprocal verbs denote the action of several persons, of which each person is simultaneously both the subject and the object of the designated action. Affix -xia such verbs have the meaning “each other”: And new friends wellembrace, Wellkiss(Kr.).

Generally returnable verbs express the internal state of the subject, closed in the subject itself, or a change in the state, position, movement of the subject. Such verbs allow the addition of the words “most”, “himself” - to be upset, to move(himself); upset, moved around(myself): Popadya Baldoywon't boast, but about Balda only andsad(P.).

Indirect-returnable verbs denote an action performed by the subject in his own interests, for himself: He was a neat guy. Everyonestocked upon the way back(P.).

Objectless-returnable verbs denote an action outside of relation to the object, closed in the subject as its constant property: Alreadyit burnsSun(N.); Mother darned the sheepskin coat, but he stillwas eagerAndwas eager(Paust.).

Passive voice in meaning it correlates with the active voice, but has its own morphological and syntactic characteristics. The passive voice is expressed by adding an affix to active verbs -xia(cf.: Workersare buildingHouses. - At homeare being builtworkers). In addition, the meaning of the passive voice can be expressed by forms of passive participles - full and short. For example: Motherloved(darling). Subjectstudied(studied). Design comparison - Factory fulfills plan(actual construction) and The plan is executed by the factory(passive construction) shows that in an active construction (with a transitive verb) the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object - by the object in the accusative case, and in the passive (with a reflexive verb) the object becomes the subject, and the former subject turns out to be an object in the instrumental case. Thus, the passive voice represents the action as passively directed from the object to the subject.

The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is the instrumental case of the noun with the meaning of the doer, the real subject of the action. The absence of such an instrumental case brings the passive meaning of the verb closer to the neuter reflexive, especially when the subject is the name of a person (cf.: Skiers go hiking; Letters are sent by mail; Parcels are sentforwarder).

Bondarko's theory of collateral determination. Includes all verbs. The theory is based on the relationship between subject and predicate. The subject is considered as a carrier of the verbal attribute (integral). The relationship of the verb to the subject is a differential feature. If the action is directed from the subject - active voice (centrifugal), if the action is directed towards the subject - passive voice (centripetal). Since intransitive verbs cannot have an action object, they are always in the active voice. In indefinite-personal and definitely-personal sentences the meaning of the voice is weakened, in impersonal sentences the voice attribute is neutralized. The passive voice usually has a postfix x.

Shakhmatov/Vinogradov’s theory of collateral. Voice – Civil Code, expressing the relationship of the subject and object of the action of the verb to the subject and object of the sentence. There are 3 voices: active, passive, mid-reflexive.

Active voice. Denotes the action of a transitive verb performed by the subject of the action (subject) and directed at the object of the action (direct object). All transitive verbs can potentially have a DZ meaning. The DZ has no morphological indicators. Expressed syntactically: by the presence of an action, a subject of an action, an object of an action. The forms of all persons and moods of the verb can have the meaning of DZ - the meaning of the activity of the action in relation to the subject.

Passive voice. The subject of the action and the subject of the sentence are bifurcated within the sentence. The subject of the sentence (subject) becomes the object of the action of the verb. And the subject of the action of the verb becomes the object of the sentence in Tv.p. # The door is opened by the doorman. This gives rise to the meaning of a passive action in relation to the subject. The form of the expression SZ is a passive construction + sya, attached to a transitive verb. When translating DZ into SZ, you must keep in mind that only NV verbs in the 3rd person are capable of this. From transitive verbs SV SZ is formed with the help of passive participles SV.

Syntax of DZ and SZ. In the context, the subject or object of the action may be lost. #I'm building a house (the pledge is preserved). I deliver newspapers. The article is being printed.

Average refundable deposit. It means that the action performed by the subject does not transfer to the object, but is closed on the subject itself. # Mom is washing her face. Only transitive verbs, when added, form SVZ, and transitivity is lost. The importance of focusing action on the manufacturer himself is common to SVZ.

Types of SVZ: 1. Self-reflexive - shows that the action performed by the subject returns to him and produces changes in the appearance or physical appearance of the subject. The subject of the action is a person or animal. #dress up. 2. Reciprocal - an action is performed mutually by two persons or several subjects of the action, who are also objects. # put up. 3. Generally reciprocal - the meaning of the concentration of the action on its producer (state, oneself, oneself) # to be sad. 4. Indirectly reciprocal - the action is performed by the subject for himself, in his own interests # to gather. 5. Active-objectless (property of an animate object - a dog bites) and passive-qualitative (property of an inanimate object - burdock pricks).

They have no collateral. 1. Intransitive verbs without syntax (to sleep). 2. Verbs formed from intransitive + NA (knock). 3. Verbs that are not used without syllables (laugh). 4. Verbs formed from transitive verbs, when the verb introduces a new meaning (pretend). 5. Impersonal verbs (to get dark).

Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic.

Morphological means in the formation of collaterals are:

• affix -sya, attached to the verb: to please - to rejoice;
• suffixes of active and passive participles (cf.: seer - seen and visible - seen).

Syntactic means of expressing collateral values ​​are:

• syntactic difference in the expression of the subject and object of the action (cf.: Waves erode the shore. - The shore is eroded by the waves);
• the presence of an object of action and its complete absence (cf.: Rain increases the harvest. - The rain begins);
• the difference in the forms and meanings of nouns governed by a verb (cf.: The agreement is concluded by the foreman. - The agreement is concluded with the foreman).

The main voices are: active, intermediate and passive.

Transitive verbs have active voice, denoting an action performed by the subject and actively directed at the object. The active voice has a syntactic characteristic: the subject of the action is the subject, and the object is the object in the accusative case without a preposition: Peace will win the war.

Verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) by means of the affix -sya have mid-reflexive voice. They express the action of the subject, which does not transfer to a direct object, but, as it were, returns to the subject itself, concentrated in it; cf.: return the book and return (by yourself), focus attention and concentrate (by yourself).

Depending on the lexical meaning of the stems and the nature of the syntactic connections, verbs of the mid-reflexive voice can express shades of meaning that differently characterize the relationship between the subject and the object of the action.

• Proper reflexive verbs express an action, the subject and direct object of which are one and the same person: [The daughters] will put on perfume and lipstick, that the dolls will dress up (D. Bed.). The affix -sya in these verbs means “oneself”.
• Reciprocal verbs denote the action of several persons, of which each person is simultaneously both the subject and the object of the designated action. The suffix -sya for such verbs means “each other”: And new friends, well, hug, well, kiss (Kr.).
• General reflexive verbs express the internal state of the subject, closed in the subject itself, or a change in the state, position, movement of the subject. Such verbs allow the addition of the words “most”, “self” - to be upset, to move (by yourself); was upset, moved (himself): Popadya can’t boast about Balda, the priest only grieves about Balda (P.).
• Indirect reflexive verbs denote an action performed by the subject in his own interests, for himself: He was a neat guy. Everyone was stocked up for the return trip (P.).
• Objectless-reflexive verbs denote an action outside of relation to the object, closed in the subject as its constant property: The sun is already burning (N.); The mother darned the sheepskin coat, but it kept tearing and tearing (Paust.).

1. General concept

You are moving on to learning one of the most important grammar topics - passive voice: Which in English is called the Passive Voice. This voice makes it possible to form sentences in which the object of the action is the subject. Let us explain this with an example from the Russian language:

The accountant drew up an estimate (action, deposit).

The estimate was drawn up by an accountant (passive pledge).

2) Formation of the passive voice, Passive Voice (indefinite tenses, passive voice)

Consider the way the passive voice is formed in all the versions you are familiar with. Take the verb to do.

You can see how all verb tenses are formed in the passive voice: they consist of the auxiliary verb to be in the appropriate (present, past or future) tense and participle of the semantic verb.

From the previous lesson, you will remember that participle II often corresponds to the Russian passive participle. Compare the following sentences

A few more examples:

Interrogative the form of verbs in the passive voice is formed according to the principle already familiar to us: the first (auxiliary) verb is placed before the subject:

Negative the form is formed using a negation, which is placed after the first verb:

Here is a complete table of verb conjugations in the indicated tenses. to invite

Copy these tables, as well as the summary table, into your notebook.

3) The meaning and use of the passive voice

Let's clarify the difference between active voice (Active Voice) and passive voice (Passive Voice). Compare offers:

In the sentences of the first column, the subject plays an active role, in the sentences of the second column - a passive (passive). In the first column, the subject denotes the actor; in the second it denotes the object of the action. The speaker sometimes needs to emphasize the object of the action. This necessity is most often caused by the fact that the actor is unknown, difficult to define, or appears to the speaker to be less important than the object of the action.

In Russian we can emphasize the object of an action in different ways:

1) Passive construction:

The letter has been written. The letter was written. The letter will be written.

2) Verb to -xia:

Plan was compiled three weeks. It will be here be built house.

3) Indefinitely personal turnover:

Plan were three weeks.

4) Due to the inherent flexibility of the Russian language, we can put the addition in the first place in the sentence:

My wife cooked dinner.

In this sentence the verb is in the active voice, but we mentioned the first object of the action (dinner). You can't do this in English. You already know (see lesson 3) that in English there is a strict word order (subject - predicate - object), and changing the order of words leads to a distortion of thought. For example, sentences Ivanov translated this text And This text was translated by Ivanov have the same basic meaning. But in the sentence Ivanov translated the we cannot simply rearrange the words, as we will get nonsense: The translated Ivanov “The text was translated by Ivanov.” To emphasize the object of an action, we must make it the subject and put the verb in the passive voice: The was translated by Ivanov Text translated by Ivanov.

The passive voice is very common in English, especially in scientific and technical literature. Hence the urgent need to master it well.

4) Translation of the passive voice into Russian

When translating, do not try to convey verbs in Passive Voice with necessarily passive constructions. Let's take this example:

In three translation options you see: 1) passive construction; 2) verb in -sya; 3) indefinite personal turnover ( built without indicating who built it).

Often translation with a passive construction is generally impossible. For example: Not is seen. He is often seen here. cars made. Such cars are made here. You can't say" he is visible" or " cars are made". Take advantage of the variety of opportunities presented by the Russian language.

Read and translate:

The was made. A was bought. was said. questions asked. The changed. The sides the connected a. Is English? was dressed? examples given? Were maps used a year?

5) Passive infinitive

The infinitive (see lesson 5.) also has a passive voice, formed with the help of the verb to and the participle II of the semantic verb. Compare the infinitives of both verbs.

We remind you that after verbs, the infinitive is used without to.

Read and translate:

The written The . cannot. English spoken. vegetables grown. lines.

2. Group of indefinite times ()

You have completed learning all tenses of the group (indefinite) in both voices, Active and Passive. Review the table.

Group times table

The tenses of this group express actions occurring in the present, past or future tense, without indicating their duration or completion. Group tenses are the most common English verb tenses.

Verb voice category

Voice is a verbal category that represents the relationship of an action or state to its subject and object and expresses its meaning in contrast to the forms of the active and passive voices. Active voice forms represent the action as coming from the subject, and constructions with active voice verbs are called active ( The commission evaluates the work; Teachers determine the work plan). In an active construction, the position of the subject is occupied by the name of the active subject, and the object is expressed by the form V.p. Passive voice forms represent action as a passive sign of an object, and constructions with passive voice verbs are called passive ( Job is assessed commission; Work plan defined teachers). In a passive construction, the subject denotes the object experiencing the influence, and the name of the active subject is in the form T.p.

The means of expressing voice opposition largely depend on the type of verb. In perfective verbs, the meaning of the passive voice is expressed by forms of passive past participles ( surround — Surrounded, surrounded; build — built, built). In imperfective verbs, the meaning of the passive voice is expressed by forms of passive participles or present tense ( .be in love — love, Darling; keep — we store, stored), or past tense ( read — read, read; write — written down, written).

In transitive imperfective verbs, the meaning of the passive voice can also be expressed by a postfix - Xia: guide — be guided (Letter is sent to you), receive — turn out, smash — break up.

The category of voice has different means of expression: in some cases it is expressed by different forms of one verb, i.e. inflectional means (participles), in others - with different verbs, i.e. non-inflectional means (transitive verbs with a postfix -xia passive voice).

The category of collateral is closely related to transitivity / intransitivity of verbs. Transitive verbs are those that denote an action directed at an object and therefore are combined with nouns in the V.p. form: And over the meadows the wind drives lead clouds(K. Paustovsky) or, if there is a denial, R.p. ( don't read books, can't see the river). In the Russian language there are also such transitive verbs that are combined with nouns in R.p. without negation: sketch(papers), dial(colors), to buy(products), wait(letters), etc.

Intransitive verbs denote an action not directed at an object and cannot be combined with an object expressed by a noun in V.p. ( be sad about the past, travel the world).

In some cases, transition / intransitivity is expressed formally - using suffixes -And- or -e-: depopulate(trans.) and depopulate(uninterrupted), bleed(trans.) and bleed(uninterrupted). Transitivity can be expressed using certain prefixes: go(uninterrupted) - get around something (trans.) sleep(uninterrupted) - oversleep something (trans.) run(uninterrupted) - run across something (trans.), and also using control: leave someone (to be expelled from work, to be dismissed from office). Intransitivity of verbs can be expressed formally. All verbs with postfix -xia(both passive and actual voice) are intransitive ( seem, argue, embrace, clean up, hit, going to).

All verbs in the Russian language can be characterized as verbs of active or passive voice, but not all verbs can be contrasted by voice. Some verbs do not have a voice opposition. So, verbs with a postfix - Xia those that do not have a passive voice are called reflexive and belong to the active voice.

Reflexive verbs have the following meanings:

• 1) proper reflexive - the subject and object of the action coincide ( to shave, wash your face, comb your hair, tune in, get excited);
• 2) general return - the action or state is closed in the subject itself ( be angry,be surprised, have fun, hurry);
• 3) objectless-reflexive - an action or state is a property of the subject, manifested in its ability to perform an action or be affected ( cow butting, dog bites, porcelain breaks);
• 4) reciprocal - a joint action performed by several subjects, and the actions of the subjects are directed towards each other ( meet, put up, embrace, kiss, sue, argue);
• 5) indirectly reciprocal - the action is performed by the subject for himself, in his own interests ( clean up, stock up);
• 6) impersonal ( show red, think).

Along with this, in the Russian language there are also such verbs with the postfix -sya, which express the meanings only of the passive voice: seem, like, like, dream, wonder ( AND wonder he has different passions. She couldn't do everything like. And I dream I have a wonderful dream).