All palace coups. Domestic and foreign policies of the rulers of the 18th century What palace coups took place in the 18th century

Introduction

1. Palace coups of the 18th century

1.1 First revolutions. Naryshkins and Miloslavskys

1.3 "Plan of the Supreme Leaders"

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

1.6 Coup of Catherine II

Conclusion

The era of palace coups is how the time from the death of Peter I in 1725 to the accession to the throne of Catherine II in 1762 is usually called in Russian historiography. From 1725 to 1761, the widow of Peter Catherine I (1725-1727), his grandson Peter II (1727-1730), his niece Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) and her sister’s grandson infant Ivan Antonovich (1740) visited the Russian throne -1741), his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna (1741 - 1761). This list is completed by the successor of Elizabeth Petrovna, the paternal grandson of the Swedish King Charles XII and the maternal grandson of Peter I, Duke of Holstein Peter III. “These people had neither the strength nor the desire to continue or destroy Peter’s work; they could only spoil it” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

What was the essence of the era of palace coups? Historians pay attention to two important circumstances. On the one hand, this was a reaction to the turbulent reign of Peter I and his grandiose transformations. On the other hand, the post-Petrine era formed a new nobility and palace coups of the 18th century. carried out by the noble aristocracy in the interests of their class. Their result was the growth of noble privileges and increased exploitation of peasants. Under these conditions, individual attempts by the government to soften the serfdom could not succeed, and thus palace coups, strengthening serfdom, contributed to the crisis of feudalism.

The purpose of this work: to highlight all the palace coups of the 18th century and identify their causes, as well as to evaluate the transformations of Catherine II in the era of “enlightened absolutism”.

This work consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The total volume of work is 20 pages.

The first revolutions took place already at the end of the 17th century, when, after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, supporters and relatives of Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna achieved the election of the youngest of his brothers, Pyotr Alekseevich, to the throne, bypassing the elder Ivan. Essentially, this was the first palace coup that took place peacefully. But two weeks later, Moscow was shocked by the Streltsy riot, most likely initiated by Tsarevich Ivan’s maternal relatives - the Miloslavskys. After the bloody reprisals against the participants in the first coup, both Ivan and Peter were proclaimed kings, and real power was in the hands of their elder sister Princess Sophia. It is significant that this time, to achieve their goals, the conspirators used military force - the Streltsy, who were the police support of power. However, Sophia could formally rule only as long as her brothers remained children. According to some reports, the princess was preparing a new coup, intending to proclaim herself an autocratic queen. But in 1689, taking advantage of a rumor about the archers' campaign against Preobrazhenskoye, Peter fled to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and soon gathered significant forces there. The core of them were his amusing regiments, which later became the basis of the regular army, its guard, which played an important role in almost all subsequent palace coups. The open confrontation between sister and brother ended with Sophia's arrest and exile to a monastery.

1.2 Coups after the death of Peter the Great. Menshikov and Dolgoruky

Peter the Great died in 1725 without leaving an heir and without having time to implement his decree of 1722, according to which the tsar had the right to appoint a successor for himself. Among those who could lay claim to the throne at that time were the grandson of Peter I - the young Tsarevich Pyotr Alekseevich, the wife of the late Tsar - Ekaterina Alekseevna and their daughters - the Tsarevnas Anna and Elizabeth. It is believed that Peter I was going to leave the throne to Anna, but then changed his mind and therefore crowned (for the first time in Russian history) his wife Catherine. However, shortly before the death of the king, the relationship between the spouses deteriorated sharply. Each of the contenders had their own supporters.

Companions of Peter, new nobles A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, P.A. Tolstoy, F. Prokopovich advocated the transfer of the throne to the wife of the late emperor - Catherine (Martha Skavronskaya), nobles from the old boyar families D.M. Golitsyn, Dolgoruky, Saltykov, who were hostile to the “new upstarts,” proposed making Peter’s grandson tsar. A.D., who supported Catherine, turned out to be the fastest. Menshikov. The debate was interrupted by the appearance of guard regiments. Having configured the guards regiments accordingly, he lined them up under the windows of the palace and thus achieved the proclamation of the queen as an autocratic empress. This was not a pure palace coup, since it was not about a change of power, but about a choice among contenders for the throne, but the very way the issue was resolved anticipated subsequent events.

During her reign, the government was headed by people who had emerged under Peter, primarily Menshikov. However, the old nobility also had great influence, especially the Golitsyns and Dolgorukys. The struggle between old and new nobles led to a compromise: by decree on February 8, 1726, the Supreme Privy Council of six people was created, headed by Menshikov: D.M. Golitsyn, P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, G.I. Golovkin, A.I. Osterman and Duke Karl Friedrich, husband of Princess Anna Petrovna. The Council, as the new supreme body of power, pushed aside the Senate and began to decide the most important matters. The Empress did not interfere. The Menshikov government, relying on the nobles, expanded their privileges and allowed the creation of patrimonial manufactories and trade. The “supreme leaders” destroyed Peter’s system of local sectoral bodies - its maintenance was expensive, while the government sought to save money: the poll tax was not received in full, and the ruin of the peasants also affected the landowners’ economy. The poll tax was reduced, and the participation of troops in collecting it was cancelled. All power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The administration began to cost the state less, but its arbitrariness intensified. There were plans to review other reforms as well.

On May 6, 1727, Catherine I died. According to her will, the throne passed to the grandson of Peter I, Tsarevich Peter - a tall, healthy 12-year-old boy. Wanting to become a regent, Menshikov betrothed his daughter to Peter II during Catherine’s lifetime. But now the “higher-ups” - Count A.I. - have come out against Menshikov. Osterman, teacher of Peter II, and the princes Dolgoruky. 17-year-old Ivan Dolgoruky was the favorite of Peter II, a friend of his amusements. In September 1727, Peter deprived Menshikov of all positions and exiled him to Berezov at the mouth of the Ob, where he died in 1729. The Dolgorukys decided to strengthen their influence on Peter by marrying him to the sister of Ivan Dolgoruky. The court and the college moved to Moscow, where the wedding was being prepared. But in the midst of preparations, on January 18, 1730, Peter II died of smallpox. The male line of the Romanov dynasty ceased.

The guard did not participate in the next coup, and Menshikov himself became its victim. This happened already in 1728, during the reign of Peter II. The temporary worker, who concentrated all power in his hands and completely controlled the young tsar, suddenly fell ill, and while he was ill, his political opponents, princes Dolgoruky and A.I.

Osterman managed to gain influence on the tsar and get from him a decree, first on the resignation, and then on the exile of Menshikov to Siberia. This was a new palace coup, because as a result, power in the country passed to another political force.

According to the will of Catherine I, in the event of the death of Peter II, the throne passed to one of her daughters. But the “higher-ups” did not want to lose power. At the suggestion of D.M. Golitsyn, they decided to elect Anna Ioannovna to the throne - the widow of the Duke of Courland, the daughter of Peter I's brother Tsar Ivan, as a representative of the senior line of the House of Romanov. In the conditions of the dynastic crisis, members of the Supreme Privy Council attempted to limit autocracy in Russia and forced Anna Ioannovna, whom they had elected to the throne, to sign “conditions”. Since the leaders kept their plans secret, their whole idea had the character of a real conspiracy, and if their plan had been successful, it would have meant a change in the political system of Russia. But this did not happen, and the decisive role was once again played by the guards officers, whom supporters of the autocracy managed to bring into the palace in time. At the right moment, they so decisively declared their commitment to traditional forms of government that everyone else had no choice but to join them.

Before arriving in Russia, Anna Ioannovna signed “conditions” that limited her power: not to rule without the consent of the “sovereigns”, not to execute the nobility without trial, not to take away or grant estates without the sanction of the “supremes”, not to get married, not to appoint a successor, his favorite E.I. Biron should not be brought to Russia. Anna Ioannovna made sure that the secret “conditions” became known to everyone. The nobility rebelled against the "sovereigns". At the coronation on February 25, 1730, Anna broke her “conditions”, stepped on them and proclaimed herself a colonel of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and autocrat. On March 4, 1730, she abolished the Supreme Privy Council, exiled and executed Dolgoruky, D.M. Golitsyn was imprisoned, where he died. The Senate resumed its activities on October 18, 1731. the Cabinet of Ministers and the Office of Secret Investigation Cases were established, headed by A.I. Ushakov - secret political police, who terrified with torture and executions. The Cabinet of Ministers had such power that since 1735 the signatures of all three cabinet ministers could replace the signature of Anna herself. Thus, the Cabinet legally became the supreme institution of the state. Anna surrounded herself with Courland nobles led by E.I. Biron, who was soon elected Duke of Courland, spent her time in entertainment, horse riding, and hunting. Anna made new concessions to the Russian nobles. On December 9, 1730, Peter the Great's decree on single inheritance was canceled. In 1736, the service of nobles ceased to be unlimited, it was limited to 25 years (from 20 to 45 years). One of the noble sons could stay at home and manage the household. For the children of nobles in St. Petersburg, the Land Noble Corps (cadet corps) was founded, where officers were trained. But the Russian nobles were dissatisfied with the dominance of foreigners who occupied all important posts. In 1738 Cabinet Minister A.P. Volynsky and his supporters tried to speak out against the “Bironovism”, but were arrested. In 1740, Volynsky and two of his comrades were executed after torture, the rest had their tongues cut out and sent to hard labor.

Having no heirs, Anna summoned her niece to Russia - the daughter of Catherine’s elder sister Anna (Elizabeth) Leopoldovna with her husband, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg Anton-Ulrich and their son, three-month-old baby Ivan. On October 17, 1740, Anna Ioannovna died, and the child was proclaimed emperor Ivan VI, and Biron, according to Anna’s will, as regent. Biron's regency caused general discontent, even among the German relatives of Ivan VI.

1.4 The rise and fall of Biron

Unpopular and without support in any layer of society, the duke behaved arrogantly, defiantly, and soon quarreled even with the parents of the infant emperor. Meanwhile, the prospect of waiting for Ivan Antonovich to come of age under the rule of Biron did not attract anyone, least of all the guards, whose idol was the daughter of Peter I, Tsarevna Elizaveta Petrovna. Field Marshal B.K. took advantage of these sentiments. Minikh, for whom Biron was an obstacle to the heights of power. On the night of November 9, 1740, a detachment of 80 guards led by Minikh broke into the Summer Palace and, encountering almost no resistance, arrested Biron. Probably, many of the participants in the coup thought that Elizabeth would now become the empress, but this was not part of Minich’s plans and Ivan Antonovich’s mother Anna Leopoldovna was declared the ruler, and his father, Prince Anton Ulrich of Brunswick, received the rank of generalissimo and commander-in-chief of the Russian army. The latter turned out to be unexpected for Minich, who expected to become a generalissimo himself. In a fit of resentment, he resigned and soon received it. But this was the ruler’s mistake, because now there was no one left in her circle who would have influence on the guard.

The rejoicing that gripped the St. Petersburg residents over the overthrow of Biron soon gave way to despondency: Anna Leopoldovna was a kind woman, but lazy and completely incapable of governing the state. Her inactivity demoralized the highest dignitaries, who did not know what decisions to make and preferred not to decide anything, so as not to make a fatal mistake. Meanwhile, the name of Elizabeth was still on everyone’s lips. For the guards and residents of St. Petersburg, she was, first of all, the daughter of Peter the Great, whose reign was remembered as a time of glorious military victories, grandiose transformations, and at the same time order and discipline. People from Anna Leopoldovna's entourage saw Elizabeth as a threat and demanded that her dangerous competitor be removed from St. Petersburg by marrying her off or simply sending her to a monastery. This danger, in turn, pushed Elizabeth into a conspiracy.

She was also not too power-hungry; more than anything in the world, she was attracted by clothes, balls and other entertainment, and it was precisely this way of life that she most feared of losing.

1.5 Peter's daughter comes to power

Elizabeth was pushed into the conspiracy by her own circle, which included foreigners pursuing their own interests. Thus, the crown princess Lestocq’s doctor brought her together with the French ambassador Marquis Chetardy, who was counting on Russia’s renunciation of the alliance with Austria and rapprochement with France if Elizabeth came to power. Swedish Ambassador Nolken also sought a change in Russian foreign policy, hoping to achieve a revision of the terms of the Treaty of Nystadt in 1721, which secured Russia's possessions in the Baltic states. But Elizabeth had no intention of giving Sweden any land, and she didn’t really need foreigners either. On the contrary, it was the abundance of foreigners at court that was one of the factors that irritated both the guard and the residents of St. Petersburg.

A new coup was carried out by the guards regiments in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth. The French ambassador took part in the conspiracy, hoping to benefit his country from this. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizabeth, at the head of the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, arrested the Brunswick family and deposed Ivan Antonovich. Soon, crews of dignitaries awakened by the drummers flocked to the palace, hastening to express their loyal feelings to the new ruler of Russia. She herself forever remembered this night not only as the night of her triumph. From now on, she always imagined the ghost of a new revolution, she tried not to sleep at night and in all her palaces did not have a permanent bedroom, but ordered to make a bed in different chambers every night.

Those arrested were sent abroad, but were returned from the path, kept in exile in different cities, finally placed in Kholmogory, and when Ivan Antonovich grew up, he, as a contender for the throne, was imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress, ordering the commandant to kill the prisoner while trying to escape. When on July 4-5, 1764, a descendant of noble Cossacks, the son of the governor, Lieutenant Vasily Yakovlevich Mirovich, tried to free Ivan Antonovich, the commandant carried out the order.

During the reign of Elizabeth, Russia returned to the Petrine order: the Senate was restored and the Cabinet of Ministers was eliminated, magistrates resumed their activities, and the Secret Chancellery was preserved. In 1744 the death penalty was abolished. In development of Peter's reforms, other events were carried out in the spirit of “enlightened absolutism”, for which the Legislative Commission was formed in 1754. According to her projects, internal customs duties were abolished on April 1, 1754. By decree of 1754 "On the punishment of moneylenders" the maximum interest rate was limited to 6%. They formed the State Loan Bank, which consisted of the Bank for the Nobility and the Merchant Bank. The pro-noble nature of the reforms was especially reflected in the granting of a monopoly on distillation to the nobles in 1754. According to the new decree, nobles had to prove their origin. Decrees were being prepared on the secularization of church lands and the “liberty of the nobility.” Minich and Osterman were sent into exile. In contrast to the recent dominance of the Germans at court, the main government positions were now occupied by Russian nobles. Counts Pyotr Ivanovich Shuvalov and Alexey Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin became outstanding statesmen. The favorites mattered a lot. The singer of the court choir, the Ukrainian peasant Alexei Grigorievich Rozum, became Count Razumovsky and field marshal. At the end of 1742, he and Elizabeth secretly got married in the church of the village of Perovo (now Moscow) near Moscow.

Elizaveta Petrovna took care of the successor in advance, already at the very beginning of her reign, announcing her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich as the successor. However, brought to Russia in early adolescence, this grandson of Peter the Great was never able to fall in love or get to know the country he was to rule. His impulsive character, love for everything Prussian and open contempt for Russian national customs, along with the lack of the makings of a statesman, frightened the Russian nobles and deprived them of confidence in the future - their own and the whole country.

In 1743, Elizabeth married him to the poor German princess Sophia-August-Frederike of Anhalt-Zerb, who after accepting Orthodoxy was called Ekaterina Alekseevna. When their son Pavel was born in 1754, Elizabeth took him into her care, isolating him from his parents so that he would grow up Russian in spirit. There is an assumption that Elizaveta Petrovna herself wanted to deprive the Grand Duke of his inheritance by declaring their son Pavel as her successor. On the other hand, some Russian nobles, in particular Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, began to think about elevating his wife to the throne instead of Peter. But Bestuzhev fell into disgrace and was exiled, and Elizabeth never decided to carry out her intentions. On December 25, 1761, when Elizabeth died, Peter III became emperor.

Peter's behavior on the throne justified the worst fears of the courtiers. He behaved like a child who had escaped from the supervision of adults; it seemed to him that, as an autocrat, he was allowed everything. Rumors spread throughout the capital, and throughout the country, about the tsar’s intentions to replace Orthodoxy with Protestantism, and the Russian guards with Holsteins. Society condemned the hasty conclusion of peace with Prussia, the ostentatious Prussophilia of the emperor and his plans to start a war with Denmark. And almost from the first days of his reign, a conspiracy began to mature around him, headed by his wife Catherine.

Peter III and Catherine had a difficult relationship and were unhappy in their marriage. Catherine became close to officer Grigory Grigorievich Orlov. Soon a circle of devoted people led by the Orlov brothers formed around her, in which by 1756 a conspiracy had matured to seize power and transfer the throne to Catherine. The conspiracy was fueled by rumors about the intention of the ill Elizabeth to leave the throne to Paul and send Catherine and her husband to Holstein. The conspiracy was supported by the British ambassador. After Peter III ascended the throne, the conspiracy continued to grow and deepen. The coup was scheduled for early July 1762. But the denouement came earlier, when Peter III, preparing for war with Denmark, ordered the guards to go to Finland. The guards were not informed about the purpose of the campaign; they decided that the conspiracy had been discovered and they wanted to remove her from the capital. Peter III actually found out about the conspiracy, Grigory Orlov was arrested. On June 29, Peter III tried to take refuge in Kronstadt, but the fortress did not accept him, greeting him with fire.

Meanwhile, on June 28 at 6 o’clock in the morning, Alexey Orlov appeared in Peterhof to Catherine and said that the conspiracy had been discovered. Catherine hurried to St. Petersburg to the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment. Other guards joined her and proclaimed her autocrat. Pavel was also brought here. In the presence of nobles, Catherine was solemnly proclaimed empress and her son heir. From the cathedral she went to the Winter Palace, where members of the Senate and Synod took the oath.

Meanwhile, Peter III arrived with his retinue from Oranienbaum to Peterhof on the morning of June 28 and discovered the disappearance of his wife. Soon it became known about what happened in St. Petersburg. The emperor still had forces loyal to him and, had he shown determination, perhaps he would have been able to turn the tide of events. But Peter hesitated and only after much deliberation decided to try to land in Kronstadt. By this time, however, Admiral I.L., sent by Catherine, was already there. Talyzin and the emperor had to return to Peterhof, and then he had no choice but to sign his abdication. Peter III was captured and taken to the Ropsha manor (farm), 20 km from Oranienbaum, under the guard of Alexei Orlov and other officers. At dinner, the conspirators poisoned him and then strangled him in front of a servant who came running to the cry. The subjects were informed of the death of the emperor from a “hemorrhoidal attack.”

Having seized the throne, Catherine II continued Peter's policy of creating a strong absolutist state, claiming the role of an "enlightened monarch."

1.7 Failed plots against Catherine II

Thus began the 34-year reign of Catherine II. More than once during this time, especially in the first years, attempts were made at new coups (the most serious of them was the attempt by V.Ya. Mirovich in 1764 to free Ivan Antonovich from the Shlisselburg fortress), but they all failed in 1796, when Catherine died, on Emperor Paul I ascended the Russian throne.

In many character traits he resembled his father: he was also quick-tempered, impulsive, unpredictable, and despotic. Like 34 years earlier, courtiers, dignitaries and generals did not know what awaited them tomorrow: rapid rise or disgrace. The tsar’s passion for the military, his desire to impose Prussian order and discipline in the army caused sharp rejection among the military, and this time not only in the guard, but throughout the entire army. For example, an anti-government circle consisting of officers existed in Smolensk, but was discovered. When dissatisfaction with the tyrant Tsar became general, a new conspiracy against Paul matured in St. Petersburg. The conspirators enlisted the support of Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, apparently promising him that they would not cause physical harm to Paul and would only force him to sign an abdication of the throne. On the night of March 11, 1801, a group of officers, encountering almost no resistance, burst into the emperor’s chambers in the newly built Mikhailovsky Castle. They found Pavel, frightened to death, hiding behind a screen. A dispute ensued: they demanded that the emperor abdicate in favor of Alexander, but he refused. And then the excited conspirators attacked Paul. One of them hit him in the temple with a golden snuffbox, the other began to strangle him with a scarf. Soon it was all over.

Some historians are inclined to view the uprising on Senate Square on December 14, 1825 as a coup attempt. Indeed, soldiers and officers of the regiments stationed in the capital, mainly guards, also took part in it. However, the leaders of the rebels sought not just to replace one autocrat with another, but to change the political system of Russia. And this is the fundamental difference. If what the Decembrists had planned had come true, it would, of course, have been the result of a coup, but not a palace coup, but a state coup. However, there is no clear boundary between these two concepts. And if the overthrow of Menshikov in 1728 was clearly a palace coup, then these events can also be considered state coups.

For a long time it was believed that the “era of palace coups” in Russia in the 18th century. was generated by the decree of Peter I of 1722, which allowed the autocrats to choose their own heir. However, this is not true. One of the reasons is that after the death of Peter II, there were no direct male heirs left in the royal family and different family members could claim the throne with equal rights. But what is much more important is that the coups were a kind of manifestation of public opinion and, even moreover, an indicator of the maturity of Russian society, which were a direct consequence of Peter the Great’s reforms at the beginning of the century. Thus, in 1741 there was widespread dissatisfaction with the inactivity of the government and the “dominance of foreigners”; in 1762 and 1801 the Russian people did not want to put up with tyrants on the throne. And although the direct executors of the conspiracies each time were the guards, they expressed the sentiments of a much wider segment of the population, because information about what was happening in the palace was widely disseminated throughout St. Petersburg through palace servants, sentry soldiers, etc. In autocratic Russia there were no ways of expressing public opinion, which exist in countries with a democratic political system, and therefore public opinion was expressed through palace and coups d'etat - in such a peculiar and even ugly way. From this point of view, it becomes clear that the widely held belief that the guards acted only in the interests of a handful of nobles is not true.

The long reign of Catherine II was filled with significant and highly controversial events and processes. The “Golden Age of the Russian Nobility” was at the same time the age of Pugachevism, the “Nakaz” and the Legislative Commission coexisted with the persecution of N.I. Novikov and A.N. Radishcheva. And yet it was an integral era, which had its own core, its own logic, its own ultimate task. This was the time when the imperial government tried to implement one of the most thoughtful, consistent and successful reform programs in the history of Russia (A.B. Kamensky).

The ideological basis of the reforms was the philosophy of the European Enlightenment, with which the empress was well acquainted. In this sense, her reign is often called the era of enlightened absolutism. Historians argue about what enlightened absolutism was - the utopian teaching of the enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot, etc.) about the ideal union of kings and philosophers or a political phenomenon that found its real embodiment in Prussia (Frederick II the Great), Austria (Joseph II), Russia (Catherine II), etc. These disputes are not unfounded. They reflect the key contradiction in the theory and practice of enlightened absolutism: between the need to radically change the existing order of things (class system, despotism, lawlessness, etc.) and the inadmissibility of shocks, the need for stability, the inability to infringe on the social force on which this order rests - the nobility .

Catherine II, like perhaps no one else, understood the tragic insurmountability of this contradiction: “You,” she blamed the French philosopher D. Diderot, “write on paper that will endure everything, but I, poor empress, write on human skin, so sensitive and painful." Her position on the issue of the serf peasantry is very indicative. There is no doubt about the empress's negative attitude towards serfdom. She thought more than once about ways to cancel it. But things did not go further than cautious reflection. Catherine II clearly realized that the abolition of serfdom would be received with indignation by the nobles, and the peasant masses, ignorant and in need of leadership, would not be able to use the granted freedom for their own benefit. Feudal legislation was expanded: landowners were allowed to exile peasants to hard labor for any period of time, and peasants were forbidden to file complaints against landowners.

The most significant transformations in the spirit of enlightened absolutism were:

convening and activities of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768). The goal was to develop a new set of laws, which was intended to replace the Council Code of 1649. Representatives of the nobility, officials, townspeople, and state peasants worked in the Code Commission. For the opening of the commission, Catherine II wrote the famous “Instruction”, in which she used the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Beccaria and other enlighteners. It talked about the presumption of innocence, the eradication of despotism, the spread of education, and the people's welfare. The commission's activities did not bring the desired result. A new set of laws was not developed, the deputies were unable to rise above the narrow interests of the classes and did not show much zeal in developing reforms. In December 1768, the Empress dissolved the Statutory Commission and did not create any more similar institutions;

reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire. The country was divided into 50 provinces (300-400 thousand male souls), each of which consisted of 10-12 districts (20-30 thousand male souls). A uniform system of provincial government was established: a governor appointed by the emperor, a provincial government that exercised executive power, the Treasury Chamber (collection of taxes, their expenditure), the Order of Public Charity (schools, hospitals, shelters, etc.). Courts were created, built on a strictly class principle - for nobles, townspeople, state peasants. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were thus clearly separated. The provincial division introduced by Catherine II remained until 1917;

the adoption in 1785 of the Charter of the Nobility, which secured all the class rights and privileges of the nobles (exemption from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own peasants, pass them on by inheritance, sell, buy villages, etc.);

adoption of the Charter of the cities, formalizing the rights and privileges of the “third estate” - the townspeople. The city estate was divided into six categories, received limited rights of self-government, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma;

the adoption in 1775 of a manifesto on freedom of enterprise, according to which permission from government authorities was not required to open an enterprise;

reforms 1782-1786 in the field of school education.

Of course, these transformations were limited. The autocratic principle of governance, serfdom, and the class system remained unshakable. Pugachev's Peasant War, the capture of the Bastille and the execution of King Louis XVI did not contribute to the deepening of reforms. They went intermittently in the 90s. and stopped altogether. Persecution of A.N. Radishchev, arrest of N.I. Novikov were not random episodes. They testify to the deep contradictions of enlightened absolutism and the impossibility of unambiguous assessments of the “golden age of Catherine II.”

And yet, it was during this era that the Free Economic Society appeared, free printing houses operated, there was a heated journal debate in which the empress personally participated, the Hermitage and the Public Library in St. Petersburg, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens and pedagogical schools were founded in both capitals. Historians also say that the efforts of Catherine II, aimed at encouraging the social activity of the classes, especially the nobility, laid the foundations of civil society in Russia.

The last time the guards regiments said their weighty word was in 1762, when Peter III, the official heir of Elizabeth Petrovna, was overthrown from the throne, and his wife was proclaimed Empress Catherine II.

Power passed from one hand to another whimsically and unpredictably. The capital guard, at its own discretion, decided to whom to transfer the throne and crown. It is not surprising that the nobility managed to achieve the fulfillment of many of their desires. The differences between patrimony and estate disappeared, and the ownership rights of nobles to land were guaranteed. Ownership of serfs became a class privilege of the nobility; it received enormous judicial and police power over the peasants, the right to exile them to Siberia without trial, and to sell them without land. The duration of military service was limited to 25 years, a cadet corps was established, and noble youths could enroll in regiments and not begin serving as soldiers. The apogee was Peter III's manifesto on the freedom of the nobility, which freed nobles from compulsory service. Elements of “enlightened absolutism” can be seen in the policies of all the monarchs of Russia in the 18th century. “Enlightened absolutism” manifested itself especially clearly under Catherine II. Catherine did not like music and singing, but she was well educated, knew the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, read modern philosophers, and corresponded with the French enlighteners Voltaire and Diderot. She hoped to eliminate contradictions between estates and classes through legislative reforms.

Catherine II was unable to overcome irreconcilable social contradictions. The “enlightened absolutism” of Paul I and his attempts to soften serfdom ended in the death of the reformer. In the second half of the 18th century. all aspirations for a radical reorganization of the state were dashed against its very foundation - serfdom and the brutal resistance of the nobility.

1. Gavrilov B.I. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day: A manual for university students / B.I. Gavrilov. - M.: Publishing house "New Wave", 1998.

2. Grinin L.E. History of Russia: A guide for applicants to universities in 4 parts / L.E. Grinin. - M.: Publishing house. "Teacher", 1995.

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The estates take local government into their own hands and become the government class in the province. In April 1785, Letters of Grant to the nobility and cities were issued, formalizing the class system of the Russian Empire. The “charter granted to the nobility” finally consolidated and formalized all its class rights and privileges. The “charter granted to cities” consolidated the class structure of the city’s population, which...

google_protectAndRun("render_ads. js::google_render_ad", google_handleError, google_render_ad); Lesson type: learning new material.

Goals:

Educational: identify the causes of palace coups, give a brief description of the emperors of the 18th century; show that the main driving force behind palace coups is the guard. Developmental: continue to develop the skills to summarize individual events and formulate conclusions, work with textbook illustrations and historical documents; Continue to develop students’ ability to evaluate the actions of historical figures. Educational: to develop interest in national history.

Basic concepts: Palace coups, Supreme Privy Council, favorite, condition.

Equipment: map: “Russia in the XVII - 1760s”, portraits of rulers of the era of palace coups, Surikov’s painting “Menshikov in Berezovo”, presentation

During the classes

I. Organizational moment.

II. Learning new material.

The beginning of the 18th century is associated with the activities of Peter I. We examined in detail his reforms in the field of economics, government, army and navy. And today we’ll talk about the events that occurred in Russia after the death of Peter the Great.

The topic of our lesson is “Palace coups”

As the lesson progresses, we will get acquainted with a brief description of the rulers of a given era, find out the reasons for palace coups, and fill out the tables “Palace coups of the 18th century.”

(tables are given to each student; during the lesson, getting acquainted with a new topic, students fill out the tables independently; checks are carried out at the end of the lesson)

Directly related to the topic of our lesson are two events that occurred in the last years of the reign of Peter I. Let's remember these events.

-What do you know about “The Case of Tsarevich Alexei”?

The “case of Tsarevich Alexei” prompted Peter to change the order of succession to the throne. In 1722 he signed a decree.

-What is the content of the decree of 1722 on the order of succession to the throne?

(wanting to transfer the throne to his youngest son, bypassing his eldest, Peter signed a decree on succession to the throne, according to which the emperor could appoint his own successor. However, the younger son did not live long, the eldest died in prison and Peter had no direct male heirs, with the exception of his grandson , son of Tsarevich Alexei.

But whether Peter and his successors managed to take advantage of this decree, this will be discussed in the lesson.

Peter the Great died on January 28, 1725. He died hard, with excruciating pain. His subjects did not dare to bother him with the question of an heir. Tradition claims that before his death Peter wrote: “Give everything...”. No further words could be made out. The decree on the right of the emperor to appoint his successor was not used. But the dynastic situation turned out to be difficult...

The rights to the throne belonged to the grandson of the deceased emperor Peter (son of Tsarevich Alexei), wife Catherine and daughters Anna and Elizabeth. There was also relatives through his older brother Ivan, with whom Peter began to reign in 1682.

But the main contenders turned out to be Ekaterina Alekseevna, the widow of Peter I (Menshikov stood behind her), and his grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich (representatives of the old boyar families he headed wanted to see him on the throne), who was then 9 years old. Menshikov was able to make better use of the current situation, and with the help of some other close associates of Peter, after the death of the emperor, with the support of the guards regiments, he elevated Ekaterina Alekseevna to the throne.

Guys. Remember what the guard is? Who was included in it?

(state people, servicemen, from different classes, not only nobles, who felt close to the court and knew their responsibility for the fate of Russia

Please note that the real armed force in the capital were the guards regiments. The enthronement and deposition of monarchs depended on them.

Therefore, applicants for the royal crown tried in every possible way to enlist the support of the guard, providing it with special favors - ranks, lands with serfs, etc.

This election opens the era of palace coups in Russia.

Palace coups - a change of power carried out by a narrow circle of courtiers and guard regiments.

Over the 37 years from 1725 to 1762, five times with the help of weapons and the guard there was a change of rulers on the throne. The beginning of this era was marked by the death of Peter I and the subsequent struggle for power among various factions. And this era will end with the accession of Empress Catherine II for a long 34 years.

So, the first ruler of the era of palace coups - Catherine I.

Catherine 1 was born in 1684 in the family of a Lithuanian philistine Samuil Skavronsky and before accepting Orthodoxy she was called Martha Skavronskaya. She was not taught to read and write. During the Northern War, Marta, while in a Swedish convoy, was captured by the Russians and was taken into service, who gave her up to Menshikov. Peter 1, seeing her with his favorite, was a courtier who enjoyed the special favor of the monarch.

He took her in, and in 1703 she actually became the tsar’s wife. After baptism she received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. Contemporaries noted that Catherine had a sound, active mind and had a strong moral influence on Peter, even accompanying him on campaigns. In her honor, Peter established the Order of St. Catherine. Catherine 1 and Peter 1 had 11 children, but only two daughters survived: Anna and Elizabeth. However, they had no rights to the throne, since they were born before the official marriage of their parents and were considered illegitimate.

Catherine was not distinguished by aristocratic elegance, but she was stately and pretty. She knew how to be courteous and kind to others. After the death of Peter 1, she was elevated to the throne with the support of the guard. The emperor's favorite, in fact, the de facto ruler of Russia. Catherine 1 was practically not involved in state affairs and, even after becoming empress, did not want to learn to read and write. Under the empress, the Supreme Privy Council was created with broad powers, limiting the autocratic royal power.

Menshikov, seeing that Catherine I’s health was deteriorating and she would not live long, the prince decided to become related to the royal family, hoping to marry his 16-year-old daughter Maria to Peter II. Shortly before her death, Catherine 1 instructed the VTS to play the role of collective regent for 12-year-old Peter, the son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Menshikov was not against it, since he planned to marry Peter 2 to his daughter.

But luck changed him this time. Menshikov fell seriously ill. He was unable to do business for more than a month.

At this time, Prince Ivan Alekseevich Dolgoruky acquired influence over Peter II. The Tsar ceased to obey Menshikov. September 8, 1727 the prince was arrested, and then, deprived of ranks and awards, he and his family were exiled to the remote city of Berezov.

Having got rid of a dangerous rival, the Dolgorukys hastened to strengthen their position at court. In 1727 The reign of Peter II begins. And Ivan Dolgoruky’s sister, Catherine, was declared the bride of Peter II. But in January 1730, Having caught a bad cold after another hunt, Peter II fell ill with smallpox and died on the day of his supposed marriage to Catherine Dolgoruky. The Romanov dynasty ended with him in the male line.

The question of succession to the throne had to be decided by members of the Supreme Privy Council. The attention of the “higher-ups” was drawn to the daughters of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich - Catherine and Anna. The choice was made in favor of Anna, the widow of the poor Duke of Courland, who lived in Mitau as a provincial landowner, periodically begging for money from the Russian government.

Golitsyn said: “You should make it easier on yourself.” The point was to limit the power of the monarch in favor of the Supreme Privy Council by inviting Anna Ioannovna to reign. Anna was offered “condition-conditions”, by accepting which she could become an empress.

Text of the conditions signed by Anna Ioannovna.

without the discretion and consent of the high council, do not make any decisions in state affairs, therefore: do not declare war and do not make peace; do not impose any duties or taxes; no one should be condemned to death for crimes of lèse-majesté in the Secret Chancery alone, and no nobleman’s estate should be confiscated without clear evidence of the above-mentioned crime committed by him; do not give state estates to anyone; do not marry and do not designate an heir to the throne.

This document was drawn up in the spirit of a constitutional monarchy.

Define – What is a constitutional monarchy?

So, in Russia an attempt was made to limit the absolute power of the Russian monarch.

Anna signed the conditions and went to Moscow. Meanwhile, the “conditions” became known at court. The church and such an influential force as the guard and the nobility opposed them.

arrived in Moscow, she received a petition from the nobility and the guard, in which they asked her “to accept the autocracy that your praiseworthy ancestors had.” Anna, having learned about the mood of the nobility, publicly feigned indignation that the document had not been discussed among the nobility, tore the papers and threw them on the floor. The guards units supported her. The Supreme Privy Council was abolished. And the question of power was resolved. The ten-year reign of Anna Ioannovna began. The Dolgorukys were arrested and sent into exile in Berezov, where Menshikov, whom they had exiled, had died shortly before.

1730 Anna Ioannovna's reign begins until 1740.

There are different reviews, sometimes contradictory, about the appearance and character of Empress Anna Ioannovna. For some, she “had a terrible look, had a disgusting face, she was so big when among the gentlemen she walks head taller than everyone else, and extremely fat.” And here is the opinion of the Spanish diplomat Duke de Liria: “Empress Anna is fat, dark, and her face is more masculine than feminine. Generous to the point of extravagance, she loves pomp excessively, which is why her courtyard surpasses all other European ones in splendor.”

Together with Anna, many Baltic Germans arrived from Courland and took important positions in government bodies. management. The most influential was Anna's favorite -.

A contemporary wrote about Biron: “Biron’s character was not the best: arrogant, ambitious to the extreme, rude and even impudent, selfish, irreconcilable in enmity and a cruel punisher.”

gave the following characterization of the period called the Bironovschina: “The Germans poured into Russia like rubbish from a leaky bag, stuck around the courtyard, inhabited the throne, and climbed into all the profitable positions in management.”

(student’s story about Bironovism)

In the autumn of 1940 Anna Ioannovna fell ill. Her only relative was her niece (sister’s daughter) Anna Leopoldovna, who was close to the court. Anna Leopoldovna had a son, who was immediately declared heir to the throne. In October 1940, Anna Ioannovna died, appointing Biron as regent under the young Emperor Ivan Antonovich.

Biron failed to retain power. He was hated by the Russians and the Germans, and despised by the guards. The emperor's parents feared that the regent would take their son away from them and send them to Germany. November 9, 1740 Biron was arrested by guardsmen led by Field Marshal Minich.

Anna Leopoldovna became regent under Ivan Antonovich. Her reign was not marked by any important decisions. The ruler was not interested in anything. A mood in favor of a change of power began to form in the guard again. The most popular candidate for the imperial throne was the daughter of Peter I and Catherine I - Elizabeth.

Valentin Pikul in the novel “Word and Deed” describes the historical night for Russia from November 24 to 25, 1741...

“The sleigh stopped near the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Life Guards Regiment, where a company of grenadiers loyal to Elizabeth was stationed. Entering the barracks, she said to the soldiers:

Guys, you know who I am. I don’t want bad things for you, but I wish you good things. We swear on this cross that we will die for Russia together.

Lead us, written beauty! We will kill everyone!

And then I won't go. There was already enough blood...

300 grenadiers followed the woman out into the bitter cold.

French academic Albert Vandal, describing this night:

A thick layer of hardened snow covered the ground, muffling all noise. The grenadiers hurriedly followed Elizabeth's sleigh, silently and full of determination: the soldiers swore a mutual oath not to utter a single word during the journey and to bayonet the first faint-hearted one.

And here is what historians write about Elizabeth:

Lively and cheerful, but not taking her eyes off herself, at the same time large and slender, with a beautiful round and ever-blooming face, she loved to make an impression, and, knowing that a man’s suit especially suited her, she established masquerades at court without masks , when men are required to arrive in full women's attire, in wide skirts, and ladies in men's court dress. Elizaveta Petrovna left behind 15 thousand dresses.

Peaceful and carefree, she was forced to fight for almost half of her reign, defeated the first strategist of that time, Frederick the Great, and took Berlin. According to Karamzin, under Elizabeth Russia came to its senses. It was under her that the death penalty was abolished in Russia.

Blitz survey:

Teacher:

Do you believe that Elizabeth ascended the throne in 1751? (No, 1741)

Do you believe that the era of Elizabeth’s reign is called the time of “cheerful Elizabeth”? (Yes - performances, balls, masquerades).

Is it true that Elizaveta Petrovna was practically the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty? (Yes)

Elizabeth declared her nephew Peter Fedorovich - the son of Anna Petrovna, the grandson of Peter I - as her heir.

On December 25, 1761, Peter III became Emperor of Russia. He managed to reign for only 186 days. Reviews about it were completely opposite. Under Peter III, a paradoxical situation arose: the emperor, on the one hand, made concessions to the nobility, on the other, committed actions that aroused the anger and indignation of patriotic forces. Peter III insulted the guard by making peace with Prussia. On June 28, 1762, Peter III was overthrown from the throne by his wife Catherine 2 and arrested, and a week later he was killed. For 34 years, his wife Catherine II ascended the throne - an intelligent, ambitious woman took the reins of a great power.

The era of palace coups is over.

Checking the table “Palace coups of the 18th century”

What were the reasons for the palace coups?

lack of legal order of succession to the throne; strengthening the role of the guard.

The final part is the primary consolidation of the material.

1. Text with errors.

After the death of Peter II, the question of power arose. The choice of the rulers fell on the Duchess of Courland Elizabeth. The leaders decided to strengthen the autocratic power and, together with the invitation to the throne, sent its conditions (conditions). The conditions were published in all newspapers. Elizabeth did not sign them. Arriving in Moscow, she found out that almost all nobles maintain good condition. After that she signed them.

2.Test. What kind of ruler are we talking about?

1. “The Tsar is a tall man with a beautiful face, well-built, with great quickness of mind, quick and definite in his answers, the only pity is that he lacks complete secular sophistication. He showed us his hands and let us feel how rough they were from work” - this is what he looked like in the eyes of foreigners:

Alexey Mikhailovich, Peter I, Peter II, Peter III.

2. “Only by signing the terms of reference,” she could become the Russian Empress:

Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna, Elizaveta Petrovna.

3. A Courland nobleman, distinguished by arrogance and rudeness, who played the main role at the court of Empress Anna Ioannovna. His name has become a household name; it is sometimes used to refer to the entire period.

K. Friedrich, .

4. With the call for soldiers in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment to serve her as her father, and the arrest of the Brunswick family, a 20-year reign began:

Anna Leopoldovna, Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine II, Anna Ioannovna.

Reflection.

How did I learn the material?

I gained solid knowledge, mastered all the material - 9-10 points.

Partially mastered the new material - 7-8 points.

I understood little, I still need to work - 4-6 points.

d/z– underline the names of monarchs who gained power as a result of palace coups, that is, with the help of the guard.

1. General characteristics of the era of palace coups

The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards Peter's legacy and created conditions for political instability.

From 1725 after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them replaced the throne. This change did not always take place peacefully and legally, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky did not quite accurately, but figuratively and aptly called " era of palace coups".

2. Prerequisites for palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which emerged during the years of Peter thanks to their official zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and, first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended their narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle.

Palace coups were generated by an intense struggle between various factions for power. As a rule, it most often came down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.

At this time, the guard began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the conformity of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that its “beloved emperor” left.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.

To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power,

3. The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only managed to write with a weakening hand: “Give everything...”. Opinion at the top about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Peter's Nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy , I.I. Buturlin , P.I. Yaguzhinsky etc.) spoke out for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards who supported the empress.

accession Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (SPC) created under the empress, to which the first three collegiums, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, led nowhere. Moreover, temporary worker planned to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with Peter’s young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the VTS. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, having alienated old allies and not gaining new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his entire family to Berezovoye, where he soon died.

A significant role in discrediting Menshikov’s personality in the eyes of the young emperor was played by Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the Military Technical Cooperation, the Tsar’s educator, nominated for this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman - a deft diplomat who knew how, depending on the balance of power and the political situation, to change his views, allies and patrons.

The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families began to predominate (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put to an end, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor due to the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the Tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was engaged to Peter II, but during preparations for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because With the death of Peter II, the Romanov male line was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

4. Supreme Privy Council (SPC)

In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the Military Technical Council, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgorukys and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne, since back in 1710 she was married by Peter to the Duke of Courland , was widowed early, lived in cramped material conditions, largely at the expense of the Russian government.

It was also extremely important that she had no supporters or any connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, luring her with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose her own conditions and obtain her consent to limit the power of the monarch.

D.M. Golitsyn took the initiative to compile really limiting autocracy " condition ", according to which:

1) Anna pledged to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which was actually turning into the highest governing body of the country.

2) Without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, it could not legislate, impose taxes, manage the treasury, declare war or make peace.

3) The Empress did not have the right to grant estates and ranks above the rank of colonel, or to deprive them of estates without a trial.

4) The Guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation.

5) Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir, and if any of these conditions were not fulfilled, she was deprived of the “Russian crown.”

There is no consensus among scientists in assessing the nature and significance of the “rulers’ plot.” Some see in the “conditions” a desire to establish an “oligarchic” form of government instead of autocracy, which would meet the interests of a narrow layer of high-born nobility and lead Russia back to the era of “boyar self-will.” Others believe that this was the first constitutional project to limit the arbitrariness of the despotic state created by Peter, from which all segments of the population, including the aristocracy, suffered.

Anna Ioannovna after a meeting in Mitau with V.L. Dolgoruky, sent by the military-technical cooperation for negotiations, accepted these conditions without further hesitation. However, despite the desire of members of the military-technical cooperation to hide their plans, their content became known to the guard and the general public." nobility ".

From this environment new projects for the political reorganization of Russia began to emerge (the most mature belonged to Peru V.N. Tatishchev ), which gave the nobility the right to elect representatives of the highest authorities and expanded the composition of the military-technical cooperation. Specific demands were also put forward aimed at facilitating the conditions of service of the nobles. D.M. Golitsyn, realizing the danger of isolating the military-technical cooperation, met these wishes halfway and developed a new project that involved limiting autocracy to a system of elected bodies. The highest of them remained the VTS of 12 members. Previously, all issues were discussed in the Senate of 30 people, the Chamber of Nobility of 200 ordinary nobles and the House of Citizens, two representatives from each city. In addition, the nobility was exempt from compulsory service.

Supporters of the inviolability of the principle of autocracy, led by A. Osterman and F. Prokopovich, who attracted the guard, were able to take advantage of the disagreements between adherents of the constitutional limitation of the monarchy. As a result, having found support, Anna Ioannovna broke the “conditions” and restored autocracy in full.

The reasons for the failure of the “supreme leaders” were the short-sightedness and selfishness of the majority of members of the military-technical cooperation, who sought to limit the monarchy not for the sake of the interests of the entire country, or even the nobility, but for the sake of preserving and expanding their own privileges. Inconsistency of actions, political inexperience and mutual suspicion of individual noble groups, who were supporters of the constitutional order, but feared to strengthen the military-technical cooperation with their actions, also contributed to the restoration of autocracy. The bulk of the nobility was not ready for radical political changes.

The final word belonged to the guard, which, after some hesitation, ultimately supported the idea of ​​an unlimited monarchy.

Finally, not the least role was played by the foresight and unprincipledness of Osterman and Prokopovich, the leaders of the party that supported the preservation of autocracy.

5. Reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of “conditions” from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating in its place a Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, by her decree, was equal to the signature of the empress. Dolgoruky, and later Golitsyn, were repressed.

Gradually, Anna went to satisfy the most urgent demands of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Single Inheritance was cancelled, which limited the right of nobles to dispose of the estate when it was transferred by inheritance; making it easier to obtain an officer's rank. For these purposes, a cadet corps of nobles was created, upon completion of which an officer rank was awarded; It was allowed to enroll nobles in the service from infancy, which gave them the opportunity to receive an officer rank “based on length of service” upon reaching adulthood.

An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Tall and corpulent, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more callous during early widowhood... amidst court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, already 37 years old , brought to Moscow an angry and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and rough entertainment".

Anna Ioannovna's amusements were very expensive for the treasury, and although she, unlike Peter, could not stand alcohol, the maintenance of her courtyard cost 5-6 times more. Most of all, she loved to watch the jesters, among whom were representatives of the most noble families - Prince M.A. Golitsyn, Count A.P. Apraksin, Prince N.F. Volkonsky. It is possible that in this way Anna continued to take revenge on the aristocracy for her humiliation by “conditions”, especially since the Military-Technical Cooperation did not at one time allow her Kurland member to enter Russia favorite - E. Biron.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, or even the ability, to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.

Some historians call the period of Anna Ioannovna's reign "Bironovshchina", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness towards the Russian nobility.

However, the government course was determined by Biron’s enemy - A. Osterman, and the arbitrariness was rather carried out by representatives of the domestic nobility, led by the head of the Secret Chancellery A.I. Ushakov. And the Russian nobles caused no less damage to the treasury than foreigners.

Favorite, hoping to weaken the vice-chancellor's influence A. Osterman , managed to introduce his protege into the Cabinet of Ministers - A. Volynsky . But the new minister began to pursue an independent political course, developed a “Project for the Improvement of Internal State Affairs,” in which he advocated for the further expansion of the privileges of the nobility and raised the issue of the dominance of foreigners. By this he displeased Biron, who, teaming up with Osterman, managed to get Volynsky charged with “insulting her imperial majesty” and bring him to the chopping block in 1740.

Soon Anna Ioannovna died, appointing her niece's son as successor Anna Leopoldovna , Duchess of Brunswick, infant Ivan Antonovich under the regency of Biron.

In the face of general discontent among the nobility and especially the guard, which the regent tried to disband, the head of the military college, Field Marshal Minich carried out another coup d'etat. But Minich himself, famous for the words: "The Russian state has the advantage over others that it is governed by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to explain how it exists", soon miscalculated his own strength and ended up in retirement, letting Osterman take first place.

6. Reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761)

On November 25, 1741, the “daughter” of Peter the Great, relying on the support of the guard, carried out another coup d’etat and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that Elizaveta Petrovna had broad support from ordinary people of the city and the lower guards (only 17.5% of the 308 guards participants were nobles), who saw in her the daughter of Peter, all the hardships of whose reign had already been forgotten, and the personality and actions began to be idealized. The coup of 1741, unlike others, had a patriotic overtones, because was directed against the dominance of foreigners.

Foreign diplomacy tried to take part in the preparation of the coup, seeking to obtain political and even territorial dividends through its assistance to Elizabeth. But all the hopes of the French ambassador Chetardy and the Swedish ambassador Nolken ultimately turned out to be in vain. The coup was accelerated by the fact that the ruler Anna Leopoldovna became aware of Elizabeth’s meetings with foreign ambassadors, and the threat of forced tonsure as a nun hung over the lover of balls and entertainment.

Having seized power, Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed a return to her father’s policies, but she was hardly able to rise to such a level. She managed to repeat the era of the reign of the great emperor more in form than in spirit. Elizabeth began by restoring the institutions created by Peter 1 and their status. Having abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, she returned to the Senate the significance of the highest state body, and restored the Berg and Manufactory Collegium.

The German favorites under Elizabeth were replaced by Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were more interested in the affairs of the country. So, with the active assistance of her young favorite I.I. Shuvalova Moscow University was opened in 1755. On the initiative of his cousin, from the late 1740s. de facto head of government P.I. Shuvalova , in 1753 a decree was issued “on the abolition of internal customs and petty duties,” which gave impetus to the development of trade and the formation of an internal all-Russian market. By decree of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744, the death penalty was actually abolished in Russia.

At the same time, its social policy was aimed at transformation of the nobility from the service class into the privileged class and the strengthening of serfdom. She instilled luxury in every possible way, which led to a sharp increase in the costs of the nobles for themselves and the maintenance of their court.

These expenses fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who in the era of Elizabeth finally turned into “baptized property”, which could be sold without the slightest remorse, exchanged for a purebred dog, etc. The attitude of the nobles towards the peasants as “talking cattle” was caused and ended by that time a cultural split in Russian society, as a result of which Russian nobles, who spoke French, no longer understood their peasants. The strengthening of serfdom was expressed in the landowners obtaining the right to sell their peasants as conscripts (1747), as well as to exile them without trial to Siberia (1760).

In her domestic and foreign policy, Elizaveta Petrovna took national interests into account to a greater extent. In 1756, Russia, on the side of a coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony, entered the war with Prussia, supported by England. Russia's participation in " Seven Years' War "1756-1763 brought the army of Frederick II to the brink of disaster.

In August 1757, at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf, the Russian army S.F. Apraksin as a result of the successful actions of the detachment of General P.A. Rumyantseva achieved her first victory. In August 1758, General Fermor at Zorndorf, having suffered significant losses, managed to achieve a “draw” with Frederick’s army, and in August 1759 at Kunersdorf the troops of P.S. Saltykov was defeated.

In the fall of 1760, Russian-Austrian troops captured Berlin and only the death of Elizabeth Petrovna on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete disaster. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty with him, returning to Prussia everything lost in the war.

Despite the fact that Elizaveta Petrovna, unlike her father, used unlimited power not so much in the interests of the state, but to satisfy her own needs and whims (after her death, 15 thousand dresses remained), she, wittingly or unwittingly, prepared the country and society for the next era of transformation. During the 20 years of her reign, the country managed to “rest” and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which occurred in the era of Catherine II.

7. Reign of Peter III

Elizaveta Petrovna's nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and respect for everything German. By 1742 he found himself an orphan. Childless Elizabeth invited him to Russia and soon appointed him as her heir. In 1745 he was married to a stranger and unloved Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (named Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodoxy).

The heir had not yet outlived his childhood, continuing to play with tin soldiers, while Catherine was actively engaged in self-education and thirsted for love and power.

After the death of Elizabeth, Peter antagonized the nobility and the guard with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick II, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guard to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark. These measures showed that he did not know, and most importantly, did not want to know the country he led.

At the same time, on February 18, 1762, he signed the manifesto “On the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility,” which freed nobles from compulsory service, abolished corporal punishment for them and turned them into a truly privileged class. Then the terrifying Secret Investigation Office was abolished. He stopped the persecution of schismatics and decided to secularize church and monastic land ownership, and prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions. All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility. But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and the guard, created the preconditions for his overthrow. In preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, the thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve her new homeland.

8. Results of the era of palace coups

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, much less social, system of society and boiled down to a struggle for power among various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, interests. At the same time, the specific policies of each of the six monarchs had their own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, the socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.

The most important and interesting stage in the history of Russia was the period from 1725 to 1762. During this time, six monarchs were replaced, each of whom was backed by certain political forces. very aptly called it this - the era of palace coups. The table presented in the article will help you better understand the course of events. The change of power, as a rule, took place through intrigue, betrayal, and murder.

It all started with the unexpected death of Peter I. He left behind the “Charter of Succession to the Throne” (1722), according to which a large number of people could lay claim to power.

The end of this troubled era is considered to be the coming to power of Catherine II. Many historians consider her reign to be the era of enlightened absolutism.

Prerequisites for palace coups

The main reason for all previous events was the contradictions between many noble groups regarding the succession to the throne. They were unanimous only that a temporary stop should be made in carrying out reforms. Each of them saw such a respite in their own way. Also, all groups of nobles were equally zealous for power. Therefore, the era of palace coups, the table of which is given below, was limited only by a change in the top.

The decision of Peter I regarding succession to the throne has already been mentioned. He broke the traditional mechanism by which power was transferred from the monarch to the senior representative in the male line.

Peter I did not want to see his son on the throne after him because he was an opponent of reforms. Therefore, he decided that the monarch would be able to independently name the contender. However, he died, leaving on paper the phrase “Give everything...”.

The masses were alienated from politics, the nobles could not share the throne - the state was overwhelmed by the struggle for power. Thus began the era of palace coups. The diagram and table will allow you to better trace the blood ties of all contenders for the throne.

Coup of 1725 (Ekaterina Alekseevna)

At this time, two opposing groups formed. The first consisted of A. Osterman and A. Menshikov. They sought to transfer power to Peter's widow Alekseevna.

The second group, which included the Duke of Holstein, wanted to enthrone Peter II (son of Alexei and grandson of Peter I).

A. Menshikov had a clear advantage, who managed to gain the support of the guard and place Catherine I on the throne. However, she did not have the ability to govern the state, so in 1726 the Great Privy Council was created. It became the highest government body.

The actual ruler was A. Menshikov. He subjugated the Council and enjoyed the unlimited confidence of the Empress. He was also one of the leading figures when the rulers of the era of palace coups changed (the table explains everything).

Accession of Peter II in 1727

The reign lasted just over two years. After her death, the question of succession to the throne again hung over the state.

This time the “Holstein group” was led by Anna Petrovna. She initiated a conspiracy against A. Menshikov and A. Osterman, which ended unsuccessfully. The young Peter was recognized as sovereign. A. Osterman became his mentor and educator. However, he failed to exert the necessary influence on the monarch, although it was still enough to prepare and carry out the overthrow of A. Menshikov in 1727.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna since 1730

He remained on the throne for three years and died suddenly. Once again, the main question becomes: “Who will take the throne?” Thus continued the era of palace coups. A table of what is happening is presented below.

The Dolgorukys appear on the scene of events and attempt to enthronement of Catherine Dolgoruky. She was the bride of Peter II.

The attempt failed, and the Golitsyns nominated their contender. She became Anna Ioannovna. She was crowned only after signing the Conditions with the Supreme Privy Council, which had not yet lost its influence.

Conditions limited the power of the monarch. Soon the empress tears up the documents she signed and returns autocracy. She decides the issue of succession to the throne in advance. Unable to have children of her own, she declared her niece's child to be the future heir. He will be known as Peter III.

However, by 1740, a son, John, was born to Elizaveta Petrovna and a representative of the Welf family, who became monarch at two months immediately after the death of Anna Ioannovna. Biron is recognized as his regent.

1740 and Minich's coup

The regent's reign lasted two weeks. The coup was organized by Field Marshal Minich. He was supported by the guard, who arrested Biron and appointed the baby's mother as regent.

The woman was not capable of governing the state, and Minich took everything into his own hands. He was subsequently replaced by A. Osterman. He also sent the field marshal into retirement. The era of palace coups (the table is presented below) united these rulers.

Accession of Elizabeth Petrovna from 1741

On November 25, 1741, another coup took place. It passed quickly and bloodlessly, power was in the hands of Elizaveta Petrovna, daughter of Peter I. She raised the guard behind her with a short speech and proclaimed herself empress. Count Vorontsov helped her in this.

The young ex-emperor and his mother were imprisoned in the fortress. Minich, Osterman, Levenvolde were sentenced to death, but it was replaced by exile to Siberia.

Rules for over 20 years.

The rise to power of Peter III

Elizaveta Petrovna saw her father's relative as her successor. That's why she brought her nephew from Holstein. He was given the name Peter III, he converted to Orthodoxy. The Empress was not delighted with the character of the future heir. In an effort to rectify the situation, she assigned teachers to him, but this did not help.

To continue the family line, Elizaveta Petrovna married him to the German princess Sophia, who would become Catherine the Great. They had two children - son Pavel and daughter Anna.

Before her death, Elizabeth will be advised to appoint Paul as her heir. However, she never decided to do this. After her death, the throne passed to her nephew. His policies were very unpopular both among the people and among the nobles. Moreover, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was in no hurry to be crowned. This became the reason for a coup on the part of his wife Catherine, over whom a threat had long hung (the emperor often stated this). It officially ended the era of the palace coup (the table contains additional information about the empress’s childhood nickname).

June 28, 1762. Reign of Catherine II

Having become the wife of Pyotr Fedorovich, Catherine began to study the Russian language and traditions. She quickly absorbed new information. This helped her distract herself after two unsuccessful pregnancies and the fact that her long-awaited son, Pavel, was taken away from her immediately after birth. She saw him only 40 days later. Elizabeth was involved in his upbringing. She dreamed of becoming an empress. She had such an opportunity because Pyotr Fedorovich did not go through the coronation. Elizabeth took advantage of the support of the guards and overthrew her husband. Most likely, he was killed, although the official version was called death from colic.

Her reign lasted 34 years. She refused to become regent for her son and gave him the throne only after her death. Her reign dates back to the era of enlightened absolutism. The table “Palace Coups” presented everything more briefly.

General information

With Catherine's rise to power, the era of the palace coup ends. The table does not consider the emperors who reigned after her, although Paul also left the throne as a result of a conspiracy.

In order to better understand everything that is happening, you should consider the events and people who are associated with them through general information on the topic “The Age of Palace Coups” (briefly).

The table of palace coups clearly describes the main events of that time.

Results of the era of palace coups

Palace coups amounted only to a struggle for power. They did not bring with them changes in the political and social sphere. The nobles divided the right to power among themselves, resulting in six rulers in 37 years.

Social and economic stabilization was associated with Elizabeth I and Catherine II. They were also able to achieve certain successes in the state’s foreign policy.

Have a good time of day everyone! Today I decided to create new useful material for preparing for the Unified State Exam in history. Designed such a historical phenomenon as Palace coups in the form of a table. As soon as I sat down to work, I realized that the table was turning... the table was turning into an information card. It turned out well, but it’s not for me to judge, but for you. The link to it is at the end of the post. In the meantime, let me remind you of important points on this topic.

Prerequisites for Palace coups

• Peter the Great let his son Alexei rot in prison. This left himself without direct heirs in the male line.
• Peter left a decree according to which the monarch himself could appoint a successor.

Cause

Peter the Great never appointed an heir for himself, which created a question of power that escalated right after his death.

Key Features

Favoritism. Throughout the entire period of palace coups, the throne was occupied by people essentially incapable of ruling on their own. Therefore, power really belonged to temporary workers, favorites.

Guard intervention. The Guard became a political force, removing various rulers at will. The reason for this was that the nobility was beginning to realize that its position depended on the loyalty of the monarch.

Frequent changes of rulers. All rulers during the era of palace coups are presented in a table diagram. Rulers were replaced for a variety of reasons: due to illness, or natural causes, or another, more efficient ruler simply ripened.

Appeal to the activities of Peter the Great. Each representative of the dynasty who found himself on the throne certainly declared that he would rule only in accordance with the “spirit” of Peter the Great. In reality, only Catherine the Second succeeded in this, which is why she was nicknamed the great.

Chronological framework

There are several positions in determining the chronological framework of the Palace coups:

• 1725 - 1762 - starting from the death of Peter the Great and ending with the accession of Catherine the Second.
• 1725 - 1801 - since the reign of Paul the First also ended in a coup.

Many historians consider the Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825 an attempt at another Palace coup.

Table

I’ll say it again, the table itself turned out to be more in the form of an information card. To download and drag it to your place, like:

DOWNLOAD TABLE ON PALACE COUPS =>>

Yes, guys, at the same time, write down in the comments - is the info card useful or not, should we do something like this in the future or not?

There are also during the Great Patriotic War. The rest of the information cards on history (on the First World War, on the Roman Empire, on the French Revolution, on the NEP, on War Communism, on Nicholas II, etc., etc.) are attached to the video course « »

Best regards, Andrey Puchkov