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Russian Protestants. Protestantism in Russia. Is it possible to tell your heart how to believe?

, Salvation Army, Perfectionists, Restorationists, Quakers, etc.

By ethnicity, the majority of Russian Protestants are Russians (79%). Significant ethnic groups in Protestant communities also include Germans, Udmurts, Bashkirs, Ukrainians and Koreans. At the same time, the success of the national mission of the evangelical churches has led to the fact that Protestants are represented among almost all the peoples of Russia.

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    Since our school years we have been familiar with the topic of the Reformation in Europe. This plot is dramatic, interesting, bright. It can be associated with the biographies of prominent people like John Calvin, who burned Servetus in Geneva, or Zwingli, who disagreed with Martin Luther on the issue of understanding the sacrament of the Eucharist. Luther himself searched for a long time for a way to salvation. For this reason, he became a monk and during services, as we know for sure from the descriptions of his contemporaries, he fell to the ground, convulsed and said: “I am not worthy of salvation, I don’t know what to do.” And he found a way out of these sanguine experiences by proclaiming a number of principles that became the slogans of the Reformation. I will start with them in order to then touch on subjects that will help answer the main research question: what role did the Reformation and Protestantism play in the history of Europe and how much the history of the West differs from the history of Russia in this regard. Luther and Calvin were very different people. As a child, Calvin was called accusativus at his school, he was an incredibly boring studious student, whom we would now call a nerd. His father prepared him not for religious activity at all, but for the activity of a clerk. He was supposed to work as the bishop's secretary. Calvin was fond of humanism, but maintained a legal dryness in all matters. Luther was a man of the opposite type: simpler, less educated, more passionate, more emotional. The efforts of Luther and Calvin merged into one stream, in what we simplistically reduce to the three principles of the Reformation. They are well conveyed by three Latin formulas: sola fide, sola scriptura And sola gratia. All three principles differ in their structural content, in origin, in logic from what we find in the history of Eastern Christianity. Let's take a closer look at each of these proclaimed principles. When we talk about sola fide(“by faith alone is man saved”), we must, together with Luther and other reformers, place emphasis not on fide, not on “faith,” but on “faith alone.” A person is saved by faith alone: ​​he is not saved either by monetary contributions to monasteries, or by the veneration of icons, or by regular attendance at divine services, or by pilgrimages, or by connections with monasticism, or by gifts to a church institution, or by external piety. A person is saved solely by what connects him subjectively with God through faith. But there is an even more dramatic aspect behind this. Luther came to the conclusion, and this conclusion was shared by the reformers, that nothing depends on man. Only God can decide whether a person will be saved or not. From this pessimistic belief system flows the principle that I can only believe, but cannot participate in anything in my salvation. After centuries of study of the Reformation, we firmly believe that the Reformers' doctrine of salvation by faith alone is a pessimistic doctrine. The second formula is better known and simpler: “Man is saved only by Scripture.” This means that he does not look at the teachings of the Fathers of the Church, at the decrees of councils, at theological thought, at the decrees of the papacy or individual popes. We understand that, finding oneself with Scripture, a person was lost. Anyone who looks at the Bible will understand that even if you read only the New Testament, you will not understand exactly which direction you need to move. It seems to me that the third principle is least clear to the Russian reader - sola gratia: “By grace alone is man saved.” It is closely related to the first principle and implies that a person's own efforts, everything that is in a person's personality, everything that is in a person's nature, does not actually lead to salvation. Only the grace that is sent by God to a person can save him. All these three principles are sola fide, sola scriptura And sola gratia- form a rather pessimistic triad. Such a rewriting, reinterpretation, rethinking of Christianity cannot but ultimately lead to the overcoming of Christianity, if we do not use harsher expressions, such as, for example, the destruction of Christianity. From a sociological point of view, this historical and philosophical understanding of the Reformation as a mechanism that ultimately led to secularization and the secularization of culture is apparently correct. I would like to talk about several aspects of the history of the Reformation, which relate to how the Reformation contributed to the destruction of Christianity and the formation of Western society, which is now the subject of envy, admiration and criticism at the same time. Finally, we need to examine the question of why the struggle for high religious ideals led to a sea of ​​blood. Let us begin with the Reformation and Protestantism in their relation to future secularization. It is customary to say, together with our university teachers, that the Reformation was a response to the common sense of the human being, to the desire for the emancipation of the mind, was an impulse that leads to secularization. Modern historical research has led many historians to the thesis that the transition to the Modern Age in Western Europe is carried out not through secularization, not through secularization, but through what the German historians Heins Schilling and Wolfgang Reinhard call confessionalization. The point is that the New Age in Catholic or Protestant regions is not marked by the fact that secularization began there, that is, the displacement of religion from culture, from social relations, from political ties. On the contrary, examining these processes, we find that the influence of confessional principles intensified at this time. Accordingly, the transition to the New Age, to modernity, occurs through increasing the influence of religion on public life, and not through erasing the role of religion in public life. If we believe this huge historiographical school - and not everyone agrees with them - we need to rewrite all the pages of our textbooks that talk about what the transition to modernity is. We must abandon the idea that the transition to modernity or new times is necessarily associated with secularization. Another aspect of the matter that needs to be remembered is the connection between Protestantism and social discipline . We are talking about a process that sociologists and historians of religion convey in a condensed form with the following statement: new time leads to the formation of an individual disciplined from within, respecting order, internally limited in some sense, who constantly, in the words of Mayakovsky, steps on the throat of his own song in order meet certain standards. If we try to connect this formula with how we see the German love of order, or the orderliness of English life, then we will feel that there is some connection. The Reformation and with it the Catholic reform, the evolution of Catholicism at this time lead to the discipline of the social and individual life of people. This is a process that we trace at the level of communities, groups of people, individual categories of professionals, and at the same time at the level of culture and institutions. Here I will emphasize one more important thing. We are accustomed to thinking that Catholicism at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries was on its deathbed, that at that time there were a huge number of drunken priests, drunken monks, everything was for sale, debauchery reigned in Rome. The religiosity of the parishioners became more and more superficial, and the conflict between the laity and the clergy became more and more acute. All views that have become canon have been radically revised over the past 50–60 years. We now know for sure, based on regional studies, that Catholicism has been radically and rapidly renewed since the mid-15th century. I could cite a whole series of brilliant German, French, Polish and other studies that show how, parallel to the Reformation, and sometimes 50-60 years before the speech of Luther and Calvin, Catholicism reveals great zeal on the part of both the laity and the clergy in achieving greater depth of belief. In Catholicism, a large number of brotherhoods are created, for example lay brotherhoods. The laity themselves are giving more and more money on their own initiative. Lay people are beginning to go on pilgrimages more and more actively and at will, and to start private home cults of saints. In addition, the laity - and this is evident from the nature of the reading, from the nature of the rare ego-documents - experience faith itself more dramatically and deeply. In Catholic historiography this is called a reform that precedes the Protestant Reformation and in some sense replaces it. Was the Protestant Reformation inevitable? This is a Marxist, scholarly and at the same time quite common-sense question. If we carry to the end historical observations that are addressed to Italy, or Germany, or Austria, or France, then we can say that Protestantism might not have happened. Within two or three decades, Catholic reformers could transform the Catholic Church from within in a way that would prevent the bloody schism that began in 1517. But this question is dramatically terrible from the point of view of how the polemic between Protestants and Catholics develops historically, because it is very difficult for Protestant historical consciousness, including Protestant historians, to come to terms with the fact that historical research shows that it was possible to do without this terrible drama . More and more research is concerned with comparative aspects of the history of the Protestant Reformation. But the point is not only that Protestantism and Catholicism or different versions of Protestantism are compared, but that the question is raised to what extent all the dramas associated with Protestantism are the result of a local, unique, typologically special Western development. If we had more time to look at the relevant research, we would find that all three of these principles - sola scriptura, sola fide, sola gratia- are deeply rooted precisely in the way Latin Christianity, throughout the mature Middle Ages and early modern times, posed questions concerning these areas. The Byzantine Orthodox, or Eastern Christian, tradition initially resolved these issues in a different way than the Catholic tradition. The third principle of Protestantism is sola gratia. Why can a person be saved only by grace alone, and not by one’s own efforts? From the point of view of the Augustinian or generally Catholic tradition, human nature is such that it is incompatible with grace. It is so corrupted by both original sin and individual vileness that it cannot contain even a modicum of grace. Orthodox anthropology, which was formulated in Byzantine culture and then came to Rus', Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, proceeds from other premises. She says that there are no fundamental barriers between human nature, human will, human gifts, human calling and grace. Accordingly, the question of whether a person is saved by grace alone or not is decided differently from the very beginning. At the normative level, a pessimistic view of all religious issues is prevented. In Russia it is customary to say that everything that concerns theology, the history of church rites, religious rites, institutions is all the domain specifically for representatives of the clergy or those who study the history of the church from the inside. This has an indirect relation to the history of society as such. This is a wrong view, because current historical research shows more and more clearly that if you do not know how to establish connections, correlations between the features of theological teaching itself and the way Christianity lives in culture, you do not really understand how history happens. This is perhaps the greatest pathos of the scientific study of both the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Reform. The processes in the West, gigantic in their significance and scope, very clearly showed the extent to which Western culture of the New Age and is still closely related to the peculiarities of the theological-exegetical or theological and church-institutional content of Christian traditions.

Dogmatic similarities and differences

Most Russian Protestants recognize the basic values ​​of the Reformation: salvation by faith alone and Scripture alone. In divine services, in addition to the sermon, only two sacraments are important for the correction of life: baptism and communion. However, Evangelical Christian Baptists are distinguished by a Calvinistic approach to the symbolic interpretation of the sacraments, while Lutherans insist on the true presence of God in the sacraments. Baptists also deny the baptism of children, believing that their lack of consciousness is an obstacle to the performance of the sacrament.

Sociological portrait of a Protestant

More than 90% of modern Russian Protestants converted to Protestantism after 1990; Protestants in the first generation are 60% of believers, in the second and more - 40%. Every fourth Russian Protestant is under 30 years of age (this figure is almost twice as high as similar indicators characterizing Orthodox believers). One third of Russian Protestants are people between 31 and 55 years old. There are noticeably more women in Protestant communities than men (70% and 30%), but this ratio reflects a general trend for all of Russia. The share of unemployed among Protestants is on average lower than in the country. Thus, in 1999, when the unemployment rate in Russia was 12.4%, 8.3% were unemployed among Protestants.

Russian Protestants are distinguished by a high degree of involvement of parishioners in all types of religious practices and a deep understanding of the tenets of their faiths. In surveys, 83.3% of Protestants said they attend church at least once a week.

Sociological studies describe a Russian Protestant as “a respectable law-abiding citizen from 18 to 40 years old with average income.” Despite denominational differences, Russian Protestants are united in their main ideological positions - they are a conservative, democratically minded and enterprising part of society in terms of observance of biblical values.

Main denominations

Lutheranism

Lutheran Hour Ministry

In Russia there is an organization “Ministry of the Lutheran Hour”, the head of which, Konstantin Andreev, has a negative attitude towards other Protestant denominations.

Evangelical Christian Baptists

Mostly Baptists and Pentecostals call themselves evangelical Christians in Russia. Temples of Evangelical Christians were called houses of prayer.

Pentecostals

  • VRUM - East Russian Union Mission (206 churches; 77 groups; 16,423 church members),
  • DVM - Far Eastern mission (61 churches; 27 groups; 3,533 church members),
  • ZRUK - Western Russian Union of Conferences (433 churches; 35,825 church members),
  • partially KAUM - Caucasian Union Mission (157 churches; 10,094 church members).

Relations between Orthodoxy and Protestantism in Russia

A polemical work against Protestants was written by Deacon Andrei Kuraev (“To Protestants on Orthodoxy”). First of all, Baptists, Adventists and Pentecostals, as well as Jehovah's Witnesses, are called Protestants. They are united (and, accordingly, opposed to Orthodoxy) by the following principles:

  • “Only Scripture” while ignoring or even critically perceiving the Holy Tradition (patristic literature, decrees of church councils).
  • "Juridism" ( legal understanding of Scripture) is a legal rather than medical understanding of salvation as justification.
  • Mnemonic, not sacred character of Communion.
  • The theory of the “invisible Church”, different from its historical embodiment.
  • Rejection of icon veneration
  • Rejection of the cult of saints.
  • Rejection of infant baptism (among some Protestant groups)

Russian state and Protestantism

In the Moscow and Imperial periods, the Russian government invited specialists of the Protestant (Mennonite) faith to the country and did not always allow them to build churches. However, the Council Code prohibited Protestants from preaching the gospel of Jesus Christ on the grounds of “seduction from Orthodoxy,” but it was allowed in the Islamic and Buddhist regions of the empire, as well as among Russian Molokans, Mennonites, Doukhobors, Old Believers, Bezpopovtsy, etc. The death penalty was imposed for spreading the Gospel of Jesus Christ (abolished in). The mass deportation of Russian Baptists to Transcaucasia and the Far East in the period 1880-1903 for hard labor reduced the number of evangelical Christians in Ukraine and St. Petersburg. But the evangelical movement increased in the convict regions of the empire, such as the Caucasus, Volga region, Siberia and Amur.

The differences in modern Protestantism are not so much differences between different directions, churches and denominations in doctrine and structure, but rather differences between trends within Protestantism itself. Since the middle of the 20th century, major movements of Protestantism in our country, as well as in the whole world, have been strongly influenced by the external environment, a world that is increasingly becoming secular. There are fewer and fewer people who regularly attend worship services. At the same time, circles for intensive study of the Bible and understanding it in relation to the era appear; faith becomes not just inherited from the past generation, but independently gained.

All these remarks apply entirely to the Protestant churches in this country, or to the "sects" as they were recently called.

Sectarian movements, “reformation” in the broad sense, appeared in Rus' around the 14th century. Its main forms were Skoptchestvo, Christian Belief, Doukhoborism, Sabbatarianism, usually represented by various groups. All of them resolutely rejected the Orthodox Church, external piety in favor of internal faith (“God is not in the logs, but in the ribs”), and sought to create self-governing communities as prototypes of the “kingdom of God.”

The first Protestant association in Russia was the sect of Mennonites or “peaceful Anabaptists” that arose in Holland in the 16th century. Their preaching was distinguished by the ideas of humility and submission, renunciation of violence and war, which were later clearly entrenched in the religious requirement of renouncing military service and the use of weapons. This brought upon them severe persecution by the authorities. After Catherine II allowed foreigners to settle in Russia (1763), Mennonites from Germany began to move to the south of Ukraine and the Volga region. Their appearance in Russia did not have much impact on the religious situation of that time.

The widespread spread of Protestantism in our country began in the 60-70s of the 19th century with the emergence of followers of Evangelical Baptists from Germany. They carried out active preaching work and began to found communities in the regions of the Caucasus, Southern Ukraine, the Baltic states and St. Petersburg. The first Russian Baptist was the merchant N. Voronin, who was baptized in faith in Tiflis in 1867. The growth in the number of evangelical Christians, Baptists and followers of other movements of Protestantism caused an extremely negative reaction from the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church. Soon persecution and repression began.

In the resolution of the meeting of Orthodox leaders under the leadership of K.P. Pobedonostsev, who was at that time chief prosecutor of the Holy Synod, said in particular: “The rapid growth of sectarianism is a serious danger for the state. All sectarians should be prohibited from leaving their place of residence. All crimes against the Orthodox Church should be dealt with not in secular, but in spiritual courts. The passports of sectarians must be marked in a special way so that they are not accepted for work or residence anywhere until life in Russia becomes unbearable for them. Their children must be taken away by force and raised in the Orthodox faith."

Only in 1905, with the issuance of the decree on religious tolerance of April 17 and the Manifesto on the granting of civil liberties of October 17, were Protestant churches able to conduct missionary and publishing activities.

The largest Protestant movement in Russia is Baptistism. The name comes from the Greek “to immerse”, “to baptize in water”. The current name of the church was formed from the names of two related movements: Baptists, who initially bore the name “Christians baptized by faith” and mainly lived in the south of the Russian state, and the church of “Evangelical Christians”, which appeared somewhat later, mainly in the north of the country.

The unification of churches of the Evangelical confession was achieved on the basis of the Agreement of Evangelical Christians and Baptists in 1944. In 1945, an agreement was concluded with representatives of Pentecostal churches, called the “August Agreement”, in 1947 an agreement was reached with Christians in the spirit of the apostles, and in 1963 Mennonites were accepted into the union.

Pentecostals base their doctrine on the Gospel's instructions about the "descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles" on the fiftieth day after Easter. Mennonites consider humility, renunciation of violence, even if it is committed for the common good, and moral self-improvement to be the most essential features of Christianity.

The Union of Evangelical Christian Baptists has been part of the Baptist World Union since its founding in 1905 and shares the seven biblical principles - theological foundations developed by the World Fellowship: “The Holy Scriptures, the books of the Old and New Testaments (canonical) are the basis of the Creed. The Church must consist "exclusively from regenerate people. The commandments about Baptism and the Lord's Supper (communion) also belong to regenerate people. Independence of each local church. Equality of all members of the local church. Freedom of conscience for all. Separation of church and state."

The Union of Evangelical Christian Baptists - both in general and in each local church - considers its tasks to be the preaching of the Gospel, the spiritual education of believers to achieve holiness, Christian piety and observance of the commandments of Christ in life, the development and strengthening of the unity of believers in accordance with the High Priestly Prayer of Christ, active participation in social service.

Now the Union of Evangelical Christian Baptists of Russia publishes two magazines, “Brotherly Messenger” and “Christian and Time,” more than a dozen newspapers, publishes Bibles, collections of spiritual songs, and other Christian literature.

Another Protestant church common in modern Russia is the Seventh-day Adventist Church. The founder of this movement is considered to be the American prophetess Ellen White, who, guided by her “visions” in which “the Lord revealed truths to her,” developed the ideas of Adventism. The main thing was the instruction to celebrate not only Sunday, but Saturday, of all days of the week, when it is impossible not only to work, but even to cook food. Thus, the fulfillment of the fourth biblical commandment was put at the forefront: “Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy: six days you shall work and do all your work, but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord your God: on it you shall not do any work. .." (Ex. 20: 8 - 10).

Seventh-day Adventists have developed dogma, rituals, and a way of life in which the so-called “sanitary reform” plays a special role. Its theological justification lies in the assertion that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit and, in order not to destroy it, one should lead an appropriate lifestyle. They have food prohibitions, as well as a ban on drinking tea, coffee, alcoholic drinks, and smoking.

Today there are more than 30 thousand Seventh-day Adventists in our country, they have about 450 houses of worship. The central body of this church is located in the Tula region in the village of Zaoksky, where they operate a theological school and seminary, and a radio and television center. The Church publishes newspapers and a number of magazines jointly with foreign Adventists. Church members help kindergartens, hospitals, and the elderly. A rehabilitation center has been created in the Tula region under the leadership of Valentin Dikul, where sick children are helped.

Among other Protestant movements operating in modern Russia, one should name Christians of the Evangelical faith or Pentecostals. The name goes back to the Gospel story that during the celebration of the Feast of Pentecost (50th day after Easter), the Holy Spirit descended on the apostles and they “were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues” (Acts 2:4). Believers of this denomination practice “speaking in other tongues” during prayer meetings, believing in the possibility of the Holy Spirit indwelling true believers. In Russia this church has several movements.

In 1992, a religious and social organization called the “Salvation Army” began to actively operate in our country. The movement arose in England in the last century, has a strict organization: Salvation Army soldiers swear an oath of allegiance to God, serve people and God, abstain from alcohol, smoking, drug addiction, and other bad habits. They are involved in evangelism and social work. In Moscow, the Salvation Army has opened 18 free canteens, helps refugees and the homeless, and provides humanitarian assistance to hospitals, kindergartens, and other people in need.

Currently in Russia there are over one million Protestant believers belonging to dozens of different Protestant denominations. Some of them arose in the last century, others appeared in recent years. The development of market relations and changes in the ideology of the state contribute to the strengthening of the position of Protestantism. Using the support of their foreign international centers, they conduct active missionary work to evangelize the population, distribute a huge amount of religious literature and other products.

Protestantism is popular in Russia.

It is not always directly called Protestantism and it is not always radical, but the ideas of Protestantism are popular.

Firstly, the idea of ​​clarifying liturgical books, revising the ritual part in accordance with its meaning is the idea of ​​Protestants in Europe, and the same idea was implemented in Russia. It caused a split and the emergence of Old Believer movements.

Secondly, the idea of ​​introducing people to the Bible is a fundamental Protestant idea (not in the sense that it is alien to Catholics and Orthodox Christians, but in the fact that it was Protestants who raised and implemented it and this was the essence of their protest - a return to the Bible). This idea also came to Russia and was implemented. Moreover, it came precisely with Protestants from Europe.

At the beginning of the 19th century, a Bible Society was created in Russia, modeled on the most popular numerous Protestant European Bible societies, whose goal was to introduce people to the Bible and transform lives in accordance with it. This is exactly how the Russian translation of the Bible was completed, approved by the Synod and known as the synodal translation. Before this, people used the Church Slavonic translation. Which, with the application of labor, is also understandable, but the accessibility of the Russian translation and ease of publication are still much higher.

The religious culture of Russia from the beginning of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th is unthinkable without an understanding of Protestantism. Leo Tolstoy, who is he if not a Protestant?! The purification of life and faith according to the Bible, the translation of the Bible are his main ideas and this is precisely Protestantism. To understand, read the story of his main ally Chertkov. One of the richest people in Russia, close to the emperor, was raised spiritually by an English Protestant who came to Russia, Grenville Redstock. His circle included princesses N.F. Lieven, V.F. Gagarina, Count A.P. Bobrinsky, Count M.M. Korf, Colonel V.A. Pashkov, Yu.D. Zasetskaya. Read "Anna Karenina" - there Tolstoy describes this system of spiritual circles that embraced many of the Russian elite. Baptists and Pentecostals in Russia call his activities the “Great Awakening”; it gave impetus to the preaching and publishing activities of Protestants throughout Russia.

As of 2014, religious scholars talk about 3 million Protestants in Russia. (sov-europe.ru) And what is important, these are not just millions of Orthodox who attribute themselves to Orthodox culture, but do not attend church, but active Protestant communities. This number is comparable to the number of Orthodox Christians who regularly attend church; according to various surveys, there are up to 12 million. “Protestant churches in the Ural and Siberian districts make up a significant part of all associations, and in the Far Eastern district their number exceeds the number of Orthodox churches.” (follow the link above, this is data from the Ministry of Justice on registered communities)

UDC 274 (=161.1) : 008 (=161.1)

A. V. Sukhovsky

Russian Protestantism and Russian culture

The article analyzes the phenomenon of Russian Protestantism and makes an attempt to identify the essential and typological features of this phenomenon. A brief overview of the history of Stundism and Pashkovism is given. The question of the place and role of Protestantism in Russian culture, and the prospects for the development of this religious trend are considered.

This article analyzes the phenomenon of Russian Protestantism, the author attempting to single out essential and typological features of this phenomenon, presenting a brief overview of Stundism and Pashkovism history and dwelling upon the place, role and perspectives of Protestantism in Russian culture.

Key words: Protestantism, evangelical Christianity, Pashkovites, Redstockism, Stundism, culture, religion.

Key words: Protestantism, Gospel Christians, Pashkovism, Radstockism, Stundism, culture, religion.

When you encounter the phrase “Protestantism and Russian culture,” questions immediately arise. Is the conjunction “and” even appropriate? Are there common points? What is the place of Protestantism in Russian culture? What is his role in the formation of Russia?

These questions are not random. They indicate that historical memory in this area has become thinner. How many names of public figures and artists who professed Protestantism will modern people remember? After the Soviet period, when it was not customary to mention religious affiliation, the list of names is unlikely to be long.

Meanwhile, Protestantism played an important role in the development of Russian culture. At least in the west of Russia, the influence of Protestantism is clearly noticeable. Protestantism began to penetrate into Russia back in the 16th century, and starting from the reign of Peter I, it became an integral part of Russian history.

A significant number of specialists who confessedly belonged to Protestantism worked in Russia. They brought many achievements of Western culture to Russian lands (of course, not always directly related to Protestantism).

© Sukhovsky A. V., 2015

The cultural mission of Protestants in Russia was not limited to just the “import” of Western traditions. Protestants made no less a contribution in the field of Russian science, art, and in strengthening the country, which became their Fatherland. Vivid examples here can be the figures of Lutherans - V.I. Bering, M.B. Barclay de Tolly, I.F. Krusenstern, G.V. Steller, V.I. Dalia, A.P. Bryullova, K.P. Bryullova, D.I. Grimm; Reformed - K. Cruys, D. Bernoulli, G. Wilhelm de Gennin and many others.

For a long time, Protestants were only allowed to profess, but not preach, their faith. It was a “candle under a bushel.” Only a person who was not Russian by origin could be a Protestant in Russia. The religious analogue of serfdom did not allow the Russian population to leave Orthodoxy.

However, despite the prohibitions, the religious ideas of Protestantism penetrated both among the common people and into high society salons. An example of such cross-cultural interaction is Stundism and Pashkovism1.

Stundism arose in the south of Russia in the 19th century. The prerequisite for its formation was the Protestant “colonization” of this territory. After the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774. Russia received the northern coast of the Black Sea as indemnity. To populate these lands, the government of Catherine II decided to invite Germans, Mennonites and Reformed people, known for their high farming culture. The first group of settlers, numbering 228 families, appeared here in 1789. In general, the resettlement of colonists to this territory continued until 1861.

The only condition set for the German colonists was a ban on proselytism among the Orthodox. Indeed, the religious activity of German believers was initially limited only to their own circle. But in 1845, the Pietist Lutheran pastor Eduard Wüst arrived in Russia from Germany at the invitation of the Mennonites. He took the place of pastor in the Neugof-nung colony, in Berdyansk district. Wüst was a fiery preacher, and he soon managed to infect other Mennonites and Lutherans with his enthusiasm. “Wüst circles” began to appear throughout the colonies.

1 In this article we will not consider the religious movements of the Molokans and Doukhobors, since they can, at best, be considered only the forerunners of Russian Protestants.

German believers began to invite Russian and Ukrainian peasants who worked for them in the summer to study the Bible. In the Pietist tradition, this kind of Bible reading at home with family and close friends was called a “Bible hour.” Hence, in fact, the name of the Russian-Ukrainian movement was born - Stundism (German hour - Stunde).

Coming from their summer jobs to their villages, peasants organized Bible circles there, following the example of German ones. Thus, this phenomenon has affected a significant part of Russia. Gerhard Wieler, Johann Wieler and Abraham Unger played a huge role in the development of Stundism. Unger baptized Efim Tsymbal. Subsequently, Tsymbal baptized Ivan Ryaboshapka, and he, in turn, baptized Mikhail Ratushny and Ivan Kapustyan. Tsymbal, Ryaboshapka and Ratushny became prominent figures in the evangelical movement in southern Ukraine.

It is important to note that Ukrainian-Russian Stundism was not a simple repetition of its German variant of Pietism. German believers, when forming Bible study groups, did not leave the framework of their denominations (Lutheranism and Mennoniteism). Russian and Ukrainian Stundists very soon moved away from Orthodoxy, without becoming Lutherans or Mennonites. Taking the form from German Pietism, they filled it with new content. Ukrainian-Russian Stundism became an independent movement with its own creed and approach to worship.

This approach was essentially Protestant. This is what is said in the “Information on the state of schisms in the Kherson province”: “...When visiting the village of Karlovka, Elisavetinsky district, at the end of May, this official became convinced that the local Stundists positively do not go to church, do not baptize children, do not go to confession and do not communion with St. Secrets, they bury the dead themselves and do not put crosses on their graves; among the holidays, only those established in remembrance of events mentioned in the New Testament are honored; constantly reading the Holy Scriptures, they studied it very firmly; St. they do not recognize tradition and the authorities of the Orthodox Church in general; in their worship they strive to achieve the simplicity of the first times of Christianity.” .

It can be noted that the rejection of Orthodoxy here took the most radical forms, close to religious nonconformism. This seemed like a rejection of clear institutional forms of religion. But, obviously, such religious non-institutionalism was close to some part of the Russian people.

The loss of moral authority by the Orthodox Church in the eyes of the peasantry also played a certain role. Take, for example, numerous Russian proverbs dedicated to the moral character of church ministers: “the cassock asks for meat,” “everything fits the ass and the thief,” etc.

Stundism proposed orthopraxy instead of orthodoxy. And even critics generally recognized this. Here is evidence from “Notes of a Traveler about Stundism in the Tarashan District”: “The success of Stundism was greatly facilitated by the fact that from the very beginning it put on its banner the requirement of a strict, honest, sober, working life. The new teaching, with all its external attachment to the word of God, from the very first time seemed to some of the people to be as much higher than Orthodoxy as true Christianity, that is, Orthodoxy itself, is higher than paganism.”

Regardless of Stundism, in the north of Russia, in St. Petersburg, another movement of Russian Protestants was born - Pashkovism.1 The prerequisite for the appearance of this movement in the capital was the arrival of the English lord Grenville Valdigrev Redstock. His first visit to Russia took place in April 1874. Redstock came to St. Petersburg at the invitation of Princess Elizaveta Chertkova, who met him in Switzerland. Chertkova's house became a place for meetings, spiritual conversations and Redstock's sermons. It should be noted that by the time Lord Redstock arrived in St. Petersburg, he already had followers here. Princess Lieven and the Kozlyaninov sisters, while abroad, attended Redstock's evangelistic meetings and became his supporters.

Redstock's activities found a lively response in Russia. The reaction varied - from complete acceptance to decisive rejection, but no one remained indifferent. Leskov writes that Redstock “...caused quite a stir in Russia. Despite the fact that the activity of this man was, so to speak, fleeting and until now limited to one very small high-society circle, now there is hardly anywhere such a secluded corner in Russia in which they would not have heard and at one time talked about Lord Redstock. Even people who could not pronounce his name talked about him and instead of Redstock they called him “the cross,” linking baptismal activities with this name.”

1 Later, followers of this movement chose the term “Evangelical Christians” as their self-name.

Redstock's views were close to Darbyism (the teachings of John Nelson Darby). The Darbists, or Plymouth Brethren, adhered to the basic tenets of Protestantism, but did not have special buildings for worship and met in private apartments and houses. They did not recognize the need for ordination for the priesthood and emphasized the equality of all believers. As a consequence, the organizational structure in their communities was reduced to a minimum. In Russia, Redstock decided not to touch upon the topic of religious disputes. When asked what church he belonged to, Redstock replied that he belonged to the Universal Christian Church. He also did not call on his followers among the nobles to break with Orthodoxy. The theme of his sermons was only a return to God and renewal of spiritual life.

Redstock visited Russia only three times. In 1878 he was expelled from the country. However, during the time that Redstock spent in Russia, he managed to gain numerous supporters. These were mainly people from high society. Among them: master of ceremonies of the royal court M.M. Korf, Count A.P. Bobrinsky, the mentioned Princess Chertkova, Countess Shuvalova. A key role in the history of evangelical Christianity was played by Colonel Vasily Aleksandrovich Pashkov, a close friend of Alexander II. It is not for nothing that critics began to use his last name to designate this religious movement.

Since Redstock preached in French, his audience was mainly people from high society (although the sermon was translated). Pashkov began preaching in Russian, and the circle of listeners immediately expanded. Representatives of various classes and occupations now came to the meetings. The meetings were accompanied by the singing of hymns. In a small choir they sang: Alexandra Ivanovna Peyker, Pashkov’s daughters, daughters of the Minister of Justice Count Palen, two princesses Golitsyn. The community continued to grow, gaining new followers and many sympathizers.

Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod K.P. Pobedonostsev wrote: “Not knowing either their church or their people, these people, infected with the spirit of the narrowest sectarianism, think of preaching the Word of God to the people...”. He was echoed in the “Diary of a Writer” by F.M. Dostoevsky: “The real success of Lord Redstock is based solely on “our isolation,” on our isolation from the soil, from the nation<...>I repeat, here is our deplorable isolation, our ignorance of the people, our break with nationality, and in

at the head of everything is a weak, insignificant concept of Orthodoxy.” Elsewhere in his “Diary...” Dostoevsky directed his sarcasm against the people’s shtunda: “By the way, what is this unfortunate shtunda? Several Russian workers among the German colonists realized that the Germans lived richer than the Russians and that this was because their order was different. The pastors who happened to be here explained that these orders are better because the faith is different. So groups of dark Russian people united, began to listen to how the Gospel was interpreted, and began to read and interpret themselves.” .

According to Dostoevsky and Pobedonostsev, if the aristocracy were closer to the common people, then no “apostles” would bother them. It is obvious, however, that there was confusion among the people as well. The departure from Orthodoxy towards Protestantism came both from above and from below. In one of his letters to Alexander III, Pobedonostsev complains: “Pashkovites unite in different places with Stundists, Baptists, Molokans.”

The new faith really broke class boundaries. Here is a description of a typical evangelistic meeting of those years: “In front stands an elderly Englishman<...>, and a young lady stands next to him and translates into Russian. In front of them, on chairs, sits a very diverse audience: here is a princess, and next to her is a coachman, then a countess, a janitor, a student, a servant, a factory worker, a baron, a manufacturer, and everything is mixed together.” A striking example of overcoming class disunity is the Christian conference held in St. Petersburg in 1884. This is how the evangelical minister I.S. describes it. Prokhanov: “Those who took part in the conference remember it with great enthusiasm. The aristocrats of Russia, simple peasants and workers embraced each other like brothers and sisters in Christ. God's love overcame all social barriers."

Redstock's followers became active participants in social service. So, E.I. Chertkova became a member of the Ladies' Committee of Prison Visitors. Together with his sister

A.I. Pashkova, they organized sewing workshops and laundries for poor women. Joined this ministry

V. F. Gagarin. Pashkov opened a canteen for students and poor workers on the Vyborg side of St. Petersburg. Yu.D. Zasetskaya (daughter of Denis Davydov) organized the first overnight shelter in St. Petersburg and ran it herself. In 1875 M.G. Peyker and her daughter A.I. Peyker laid the foundation for the publication of the religious and moral magazine “Russian Worker”. This magazine was published until 1885.

In 1876, Pashkov and other believers organized the Society for Spiritual and Moral Reading. His activity consisted of publishing literature with spiritual and moral content in Russian. D. Bunyan’s books “The Pilgrim’s Progress” and “Spiritual Warfare” were translated (translated by Yu.D. Zasetskaya). The sermons of Charles Spurgeon were published, as well as Orthodox works: Metropolitan Michael, St. Tikhon of Voronezh and others. This society existed until 1884.

Despite the rejection of Lord Redstock's teachings, even F.M. Dostoevsky was forced to admit: “And yet he works miracles on people’s hearts; they cling to him; many are amazed: they are looking for the poor in order to quickly benefit them, and almost want to give away their property<...>he produces extraordinary conversions and arouses generous feelings in the hearts of his followers. However, this is how it should be: if he is really sincere and preaches a new faith, then, of course, he is possessed by all the spirit and fervor of the founder of the sect.”

The Pashkovites showed both orthopraxy and extra-institutional religiosity, even in a more pronounced form than the Stundists. Of course, the aristocratic environment itself left its mark on this movement. Pashkovites were characterized by ecumenical openness. And in this they were very different from the Stundists. If the latter strictly separated themselves from the Orthodox Church, then the Pashkovites did not at all strive for a break. Here there was, rather, an attempt at synthesis, a search for a Christian universal. In general, the emphasis among the Pashkovites (and then in the community of I.V. Kargel) was more on spiritual development than on organizational forms.

All this characterized the movement in its early days. Later, partly due to persecution by the state and the Orthodox Church, partly due to internal reasons, Russian Protestantism lost many of the original features of Pashkovism. The Pashkovites, like the Stundists, joined the churches of Baptists and Evangelical Christians, which were more developed both theologically and organizationally.

After the “Decree on Strengthening the Principles of Tolerance” (1905), Russian Protestants were given the opportunity to operate more freely. Neither censorship nor the Holy Synod hindered them anymore. At this stage, Baptist and Evangelical ministers I.V. clearly showed themselves. Kargel, I.S. Prokhanov, V.M. Fetler, P.N. Nikolai et al.

Relative freedom also remained in the first years of Soviet power. Before the start of Stalin's repressions, Evangelical Christians managed to build houses of worship, found numerous communities, and develop an active ministry. But still they never crossed the threshold of a religious subculture.

Since the 90s last century, Protestantism in Russia again received the opportunity for free development. After 70 years of semi-underground existence, believers gained the right to vote and the opportunity to influence culture. The question arose: what place are Russian Protestants called upon to occupy in a post-communist society?

It is worth noting that the modern religious situation in Russia is unique. We see a bizarre mixture of different trends. On the one hand, this is an ever-increasing symbiosis of the official structures of the Russian Orthodox Church MP and state power, on the other hand, a movement towards a society of general consumption and secularization. Sharp tongues described the current situation with a slightly modified triad of Count S.S. Uvarova: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, profitability.”

Difficult questions arise here for the believer. What could be the dialogue between Russian Protestants and the modern dominant culture? Should Russian Protestantism remain as a subculture? And if so, won't it just become some kind of religious curiosity? Is the countercultural mode of existence of Protestants in Russia acceptable? What forms can it take?

Protestant authors conceptualize the purpose of Protestantism in different ways. For example, Lutheran minister A.N. Lauga wrote: “If Russia fails to become a Protestant country, that is, if the Orthodox Church does not finally agree that the Apostle Paul is right: “For by grace you have been saved through faith, and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God: not from works, so that no one boasted" (Eph. 2:8-9); If they do not finally understand what it means “I do not reject the grace of God; but if justification is by law, then Christ died in vain” (Gal. 2:21), then this state will forever be a prison of nations and a threat to the world.”

Of course, here we see an extreme position, although it is periodically voiced by various people who do not even belong to the Protestant church. One example is the discussion “What God does a Russian person believe in”, started by Andrei Konchalovsky.

A more balanced attempt seems to be to consider Protestantism not as a replacement, but as a parallel to Orthodoxy. In their work on the history of evangelical Christianity, J. Ellis and W. Jones note: “Western church culture and structure are as out of place in some places in Russia as they would be in Central Africa or Tokyo. Just as the Greek church liturgy does not meet the spiritual needs of all Russians due to their diversity, so the Western church organization and ministries do not meet the needs of all Russian people. Just as it is true that the Russian Church was not successful with the peasants of remote villages for centuries, it is also true that the Western Church was not successful with them and was ignored by them for centuries.”

With this formulation of the question, the harsh confrontation between confessions is removed. Protestantism is not conceptualized as something superfluous or extraneous to Russian culture. He is not a “patch of unbleached cloth”, torn from the West and sewn onto Russia.

Of course, here there is a need for a creative rethinking of forms, new answers to many questions. Are there traditions in Russian culture that Protestants can rely on in their ministry? What in the diversity of Russian religious types is akin to Protestant ideas? What existential needs of the Russian soul are closer to the Protestant form of worship?

Understanding these issues seems extremely important for the future of evangelical churches in Russia. It was started at the end of the 19th century. thanks to two interpretations of Russian Protestantism - Stundism and Pashkovism. It is quite possible that we will soon be able to witness a new interpretation of these forms in accordance with the changed historical and cultural context.

Bibliography

1. Dostoevsky F. M. A Writer’s Diary: in 2 volumes. T. 1 / entry. Art. I. Volgina, comment. V. Raka, A. Arkhipova, G. Galagan, E. Kiiko, V. Tunimanova. - M.: Book. Club 36.6, 2011.

2. Dostoevsky F. M. A Writer’s Diary: in 2 volumes. T. 2 / commentary. A. Batyuto, A. Berezkina, V. Vetlovskaya, E. Kiyko, G. Stepanova, V. Tunimanova. - M.: Book. Club 36.6, 2011.

3. History of the Evangelical Baptist movement in Ukraine. - Odessa: Bogomyslie, 1998.

4. Konchalovsky A.S. What god does the Russian people believe in? [Electronic resource]. - URL: http://www.rg.ru/2013/04/10/vera.html, free. - Cap. from the screen.

5. Lauga A. N. Captivity of sorrows. - St. Petersburg: Shandal, 2001.

6. Leskov N. S. Mirror of life. - St. Petersburg: Christ. "Bible for Everyone" Society,

7. Liven S.P. Spiritual awakening in Russia. [Electronic resource]. -URL: http://www.blagovestnik.org/books/00209.htm, free. - Cap. from the screen.

8. Pobedonostsev K.P. The Great Lie of Our Time / comp. S. A. Rostu-nova; entry Art. A. P. Lanshchikova. - M.: Rus. book, 1993.

9. Prokhanov I. In the Cauldron of Russia. - Chicago: ALL, 1992.

10. Ellis Jeffrey, Jones Wesley L. Another revolution: the Russian evangelical awakening. - St. Petersburg: Vita International, 1999.

Where did Protestantism come from in Russia and what has it come to over the many years of existence in our country? Oksana Kuropatkina, an expert at the Center for Problem Analysis, reflects on this on the eve of the Reformation Day (October 31), revered among representatives of this branch of Christianity.

Protestantism as a religious movement emerged in the 16th century as a result of the Reformation. Its main features: a Protestant is confident that he is saved by personal faith, therefore any church institution is of secondary importance in comparison with the human person who has made a choice in favor of Christ. A Protestant is confident that only Christ can save a person, from which it follows that all intermediaries between God and man are excluded. There is no cult of veneration of saints in Protestantism. A Protestant is confident that a person is saved only by the grace and mercy of God. It is impossible to earn salvation by good deeds. The effect of grace, however, is measured by how righteously a person lives. But God’s mercy towards the fallen sinner is primary. And one last important difference. A Protestant recognizes the Holy Scripture as the only authoritative source. Therefore, the Tradition of the Holy Fathers is accepted only if it does not contradict the Bible. Since each person can interpret Scripture as he pleases, as the Spirit of God inspires him, Protestantism initially developed many different directions. In Russia they are represented in almost all their diversity. Protestantism includes not only classical Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism, but also the second and third waves of the Reformation: Baptists, Adventists and Pentecostals. In our country, most of all are representatives of the second and third waves.

Today there are one and a half million Protestants in the Russian Federation. Together they rank third in number after Orthodox Christians and Muslims. Let us note that Protestantism appeared on Russian soil in the 16th century, almost immediately after its appearance in Europe. This happened mainly thanks to visiting foreigners, whom the Russian tsars allowed to practice their cult without hindrance, but with a ban on converting Russian people to their faith. In parallel, “folk Protestantism” developed - a community that broke away from the Orthodox Church, possessed Protestant dogma and lived in its own separate communities.

In the 19th century, on the basis of these communities, Baptist preachers appeared, establishing an organized denomination connected with foreign churches. During the Soviet period, some areas of Protestantism completely disappeared. During perestroika, when it was allowed to freely preach one's faith, these new trends began to rapidly gain followers. Numerous churches were opened. The sermon went on unhindered. Today, Protestantism is a complex confessional group consisting of many directions, unions, associations and churches.

It is noteworthy that Protestants are the most religious group in Russia today. Christians of this denomination attend divine services more often than other believers, pray more often, and read Scripture more often. There are a lot of young people in their churches. In addition, Protestants cultivate a tradition of strong marriages, divorces are rare, and there is a tradition of large families. That is, Protestants are interested in ensuring that the tradition of faith is passed on from generation to generation, and the more children there are in the family, the better. Another feature of Russian Protestantism is the cult of labor, which is a characteristic feature of all Protestantism, which did not draw a clear boundary between the sacred and the profane, that is, areas that are not important to God. And a person who has accepted the Protestant faith tries to serve God wherever he is. Worldly work is connected with the place that God has assigned to each person: no matter where you are, you are obliged to fulfill your duties with the utmost honesty and with maximum efficiency. And your success in the workplace is a means of glorifying God, Protestants say.

The focus on worldly affairs is especially relevant for Russia, where historically it is believed that people treat work carelessly and insufficiently conscientiously. And Protestants are those who work conscientiously. Their distinguishing feature is not that they earn more money, but that they do not drink on the job (and outside of it) and carry out their work duties honestly. Thanks to this honest work, Russia can be transformed. This idea is actively cultivated in Protestant churches.

The Protestant community is most often represented as a parish led by a pastor. Among Orthodox Christians and Muslims, the parish form, that is, a group of believers gathering for common worship, as a living, functioning institution, is only developing. The activity of believers is most often expressed in non-parish forms and associations. For Protestants, all activity: both liturgical and social, is concentrated in the parish community. There are usually many thematic ministries there. A newly arrived person can immediately connect to them depending on his tastes and wishes.

At the organizational level, Protestantism exists in the form of unions and associations. They are not always associated with one religious direction. They may include churches of several Protestant denominations. And such interdenominational openness is becoming increasingly common. In addition, interdenominational projects are gaining strength in Protestantism. Protestants understand that their preaching will be more effective if they are united and can put aside their differences for a time. Such formats exist in the form of councils of pastors of any region, region, etc., which actively defend the interests of Protestant communities in relations with the authorities. There is a so-called Evangelical Council, which brings together Christian intellectuals from all denominations to develop their agreed position. Such forms are becoming more common.

How does Protestantism interact with other faiths and religions? The most pressing issue is the relationship between Protestantism and Orthodoxy. After perestroika, relations were reduced exclusively to acute conflict. The Orthodox were irritated by the Protestant missionaries, and the Protestants were irritated by the presence of a semi-state, from their point of view, church. As time passed, Protestants, both intellectuals and ordinary parishioners, began to understand that Orthodoxy was here to stay, and that they needed to interact somehow. Such interaction is built quite well at the official level. Protestants join Orthodox Christians in the Christian Interfaith Advisory Committee (CIAC). Protestants were repeatedly invited to discuss various common problems, to the World Russian People's Council. Practical communication between interchurch diplomats occurs constantly. It especially intensified during the patriarchate of Kirill. In this case, strategic initiative is observed on the part of Protestants. They understand that Orthodoxy largely determines the content of Russian culture, and in order to integrate into Russian culture, Protestants cannot ignore the thousand-year experience of Orthodoxy. In many Protestant seminaries, the library shelves contain books dedicated to the Holy Fathers of Orthodoxy and their legacy. Relations with other religions: Islam, Buddhism, paganism often remain conflicting, since the clergy of these religions are even more irritated than the Orthodox by Protestant missionaries, who have great success in non-Russian regions. At the same time, Protestants try, if possible, not to quarrel with anyone and to improve relationships. There is a precedent when the largest Protestant church, and not just anywhere, but in the capital of Dagestan, managed to establish relations not only with the republican authorities, but even with the relatives of converts. Protestants are committed to active missionary work; this is their integral feature. But at the same time, they try to arrange it in such a way as not to offend or offend anyone.

Another important aspect is the relationship of Protestantism with secular society. Protestantism positions itself as a community open to all ethnic groups, promoting interethnic tolerance. Protestants are loyal to interethnic marriages and friends from other ethnic groups. Their churches are open to everyone. In non-Russian regions, when creating their churches, Protestants try to preserve interethnic flavor as much as possible. Divine services are conducted in the national language. Scripture is translated into it. Songs and dances, if they are accepted in worship, are as close as possible to ethnic characteristics. This is a certain part of the image for the whole society. “We do not cancel traditions, we preach the true God...” Protestants, in response to reproaches that they are carriers of American culture, increasingly speak of themselves as carriers of Russian culture.

It is noteworthy that Protestant intellectuals build their tradition from Strigolniks and Judaizers. They even say that the reformist tradition in Russia began even before the European Reformation. Protestantism also turns out to be a part (albeit marginal) of national Russian culture, and Protestants recognize themselves as part of this culture while maintaining a critical attitude towards some of its features. Protestants are especially good at not so much recognizing compelling intellectual concepts as positioning themselves as active and useful members of society, involved in charity and social issues. Almost every Protestant church out of 6,000-7,000 in Russia is engaged in one or another social project. Protestant rehabilitation centers for alcoholics and drug addicts are well known. This is one of the strongest parts of their outreach program. It is not without reason that Protestants often emphasize that in the face of a large number of problems facing Russian society, it is necessary to talk not about which religion is traditionally present on Russian soil, but about how we can unite to solve these problems. Information about the ministry of Protestant communities is increasingly appearing in the press, and public opinion towards them is gradually changing. There was no all-Russian survey on this topic. However, according to data received from the Trans-Baikal Territory, local residents are skeptical about the ritual side of Protestantism, but they are attracted by the practice of Protestant churches.

It is also worth noting the opinion of Protestants about the future assembly of the nation. In modern Protestantism there are several views on Russia, Russian history, and Russian future. The Protestant elite has a point of view that the future of Russia will be based precisely on Christian values. It doesn’t matter what the state ideology is called. The Christian foundation of the future Russian society is important. Such a society is usually called “Evangelical Russia”, contrasting it with “Byzantine Russia”, built on the cult of an autonomous power independent of anyone and on the cult of the state church. But such ideas about the future still remain an internal debate among the Protestant elite. Another, more common version is that the future of Russia is bright because it is a special country. In this view, Protestants overlap with Orthodox Christians, who believe that sooner or later the prayers of the numerous righteous people who perished in different eras will finally bring about changes for the better, and that God has a special plan for their homeland.

Two concepts are in circulation among the broadest Protestant masses. The first is that the future of Russia lies in integrating it into the civilized world by upholding in Russian society the value of individual rights, in particular, individual rights to religious freedom. Here it should be noted that Protestants have harshly criticized the West for same-sex marriage, the legalization of euthanasia, and much more, which they consider incompatible with the biblical commandments. That is, we only need to borrow from the West respect for individual rights, and we don’t need everything else. The second concept, the most common, is that it is necessary to appeal not to the state, but to society. He needs to unite on the basis of a common cause, which should include mercy, charity, and helping those in trouble. And here Protestants have absolute trump cards.

There is some paradox in the Protestant concept of relations with the state. On the one hand, they say that the priority of the law and the protection of individual rights is necessary. And the state apparatus is primarily called upon to ensure these rights and freedoms. On the other hand, the state and state power are a value; every respectable Protestant should pray for the government and think about how to help it implement its functions. Any criticism of government power must be carried out as correctly as possible. If officials have been closing their doors to Protestants for years, it means that, in the understanding of the Protestants themselves, they themselves are doing a poor job and they need to find new ways of self-presentation. If Protestants support peaceful protest, they are against resisting law enforcement officials - this is a violation of the biblical commandment to respect authority and pray for it.

Over the past 25 years, Russian Protestantism has become an integral part of both the confessional field and public life. At the same time, Protestants do not yet have sufficient resources to be heard by the broad masses of people in Russia. But they are actively working in this direction. Relations with government authorities have recently begun to develop favorably in large cities, although locally these relations are not always rosy. One of the most important problems for Russian Protestants is developing their own identity. The perception of Protestants as agents of Western influence remains a stereotype of mass consciousness. So far, Protestants cannot overcome it, although they are actively trying to do this, receiving religious and cultural studies education, trying to develop their own national theology. Solving the problem of the inclusion of Protestants in Russian culture remains a matter for the future. Protestants, due to their confessional practicality and focus on solving specific problems, cannot yet offer society and the state their holistic and connected project, their vision of Russia and their own future. The question also remains whether Protestants will be able to build relationships with all active participants in the socio-political process and at the same time maintain their identity, how they will not fall into marginality and sectarianism, and on the other hand, how not to become an appendage of the modern state.