Language: Phonetics and phonology. Weak positions in terms of hardness and softness. How many consonants do not have a voiced-voiced pair?

In the system of consonant phonemes, correlative rows of phonemes are distinguished, paired by:

v Deafness - voicedness.

v Hardness - softness.

Therefore, Russian consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to the characteristics deafness/voice And hardness/softness.

Not all consonant phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness - voicedness. For example, phonemes can be represented by one sound<б>And<п>in the position of the end of the word: oak /dup/, stupid /stupid/ or phonemes<в>And<ф>: moat /roof/, closet /cabinet/. But cannot be represented by the sound /p/, for example, no other phoneme except<р>, she doesn't have a partner. This means that only paired phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness-voiceness. Paired phonemes according to deafness and voicedness are as follows:<б п б’ п’ в ф в’ ф’ г к д т д’ т’ ж ж’ ш ш’ з с з’ с’ >. Such consonant phonemes cannot be neutralized by voiceness-voicelessness<м м’ н н’ л л’ р р’ j ц ч х>- these phonemes do not have a pair.

Paired phonemes, neutralized in weak positions, can be represented by a voiceless or voiced sound. Neutralization occurs in the following positions:

Weak positions in deafness - voicedness:

1. at the end of a word. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: genus/mouth/ and mouth/mouth/, stupid/stupid/ and lips/gup/.

2. before voiceless noisy consonants. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: sleep/SP/at and from the desk/ISP/arts.

3. before voiced noisy ones. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiced consonants: from the bathhouse/IZB/ and with sauna/ZB/.

There is no neutralization for deafness - voicedness, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme, in the following positions:

Strong positions on deafness - voicedness:

1. Position before a vowel.

2. Position before a sonorant consonant.

3. Position before [in] and [in’].

Unpaired phonemes<ч>, <ц>, <х>, , <м>, <н>, <л>, <р>, <м’>, <н’>, <р’>, <л’>do not participate in neutralization, but each of them is represented by variations, both voiceless and voiced:

<ц>

Consonant phonemes may not differ on the basis of hardness or softness. Consonant phonemes paired in hardness and softness are neutralized in the following positions:

Weak positions in terms of hardness and softness:

1. Dental before soft dental (except /l/). Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

2. Before /sh’/, /ch’/ are neutralized<н>, <н’>. The soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft /n’/.

3. Dental before soft labial. Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

There is no hardness-softness neutralization, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme in the following positions:

Strong positions on hardness - softness:

1. at the end of a word.

2. before a vowel.

3. before the back lingual consonant.

Hard and soft phonemes are not distinguished in the following positions:

Unpaired phonemes by hardness - softness:

<к>, <г>, <х>, <ц>, <ч>, ,<л>, <л’>- these phonemes do not participate in neutralization by hardness - softness.

Consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to one more feature - the place of formation. Phonemes<с с’з з’ т т ’д д’ ц >are realized in dental noisy sounds / s’z z’ t t ’d d’ ts/. Phonemes<ш ш’ ж ж’ ч’>are realized in anteropalatal noisy / w w’ w w’ h’/. In the position in front of the anteropalatal noisy ones, the dental ones change to anteropalatal: sew/sew/, squeeze /burn/.

Questions and assignments.

1. What is neutralization?

2. Fill out the table:

Positions: at the end of a word, position before a vowel, position before a sonorant consonant, before a velar consonant, position before [в] and [в’].

3. Name unpaired phonemes based on deafness/voice, hardness/softness.

4. Determine the composition of phonemes in the following words:

house, family, mouth, with the wind, without the wind, out of trouble, out of the pond, cinema.

5. Determine the sound and phonemic composition of the following words:

With Shura, with Chuk, with Sasha, with Shchukar, with Zina, with Anya.

Issues covered:

1. Types of alternations of sounds.
2. Positional alternation of sounds:

a) positional alternations of vowel sounds;

b) positional alternations of consonant sounds.

3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants.

Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, sound position, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,constriction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, deafening of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.

1. Types of alternations of sounds

During speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this replacement is permanent, regular, and explained by the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relationship of regular replacement of some sounds with others in the same phonetic conditions is called alternating.

Alternations associated with the position of a sound are called positional alternations. Alternations caused by phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.

All types of sound alternations can be presented in the following table:

Types of sound alternations

Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and therefore words, since alternations are associated with the relationships of sounds (phonemes) within a system, where units are connected to each other in some way. In language, there are two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) – relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) – relations of unification of homogeneous units based on associations.

In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and recognizing similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of sound, is paradigmatic (for example, when a speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] are the same typical sound).

2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)

Sounds in a stream of speech are pronounced with different strengths and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position – this is its immediate environment, as well as its position at the beginning, at the end of a word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels, its position in relation to stress.

There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.

Positional changes – these are changes in sound associated with its position (for example, deafening at the end of a word, weakening of unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of Positional Changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, prolapse (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.

Combinatorial changes – these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for deafening at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.

2 a) Positional alternations of vowel sounds

The main type of positional changes in vowel sounds is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative reduction – decrease in length and sound strength - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation of [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). High-quality reduction– weakening with some change in sound. For example, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are in an unstressed position. Wed: sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mlLtok].

The sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of the word and as a reduced sound [ъ] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk– [milLko], beard– [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] – Rowan[r"i e b"in], hourly[h"sLvoy].

The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [and e], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight– [p"r"i e l"ot].

In foreign words, the qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano– [рLjал"], but boa[boa], remark[r"and e mark], but metro[m "etro".

Positional changes in vowel sounds undergoing reduction can be presented in the following table:

Combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sounds and are called accommodation. Wed. pronunciation of [o] in words they say[they say], chalk[m’·ol], mole[mo·l’]. Accommodation can be progressive (®): chalk[m’·ol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo·l’].

Thus, characterizing changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (reduction is qualitative, quantitative or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonant sounds (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, birch[b'i e r'oz]:

[and e] – positional changes (relative to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.

[·o] – there are no positional changes, because stressed vowel; combinatorial changes – progressive accommodation.

[ъ] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; there are no combinatorial changes.

2 b) Positional alternations of consonant sounds

As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed. the sound of the sound [t] in words – So And That: [sic] – [t o from].

Much more common than accommodation are other changes in consonant sounds.

Assimilation – similarity on any basis. Assimilation happens:

• by proximity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
• by the nature of the change by deafness/voice And hardness/softness;
• in the direction of influence – progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(exposure to sounds from right to left (¬);
• in terms of completeness of comparison: full And partial.

The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale– [skask] – voiced [z], under the influence of the voiceless [k], was assimilated into the voiceless paired sound [s]. This is contact assimilation, partial regressive in deafness.

Whistling consonants before sibilants as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I'm driving .

D assimilation – dissimilarity of sounds. In Russian this process is rare. As a result of the process, sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft– [m "ahk"y], easy– [l "ohk"y]. Pairs of sounds or similar sounds that are identical in the method or place of formation are subject to dissimilation. Dissimilation may be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.

Distant progressive dissimilation occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in common parlance kolidor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: th, hrs like [shn] – What[what] and - wow, -him like [ova], [iva]: blue– [s "in" ьвъ]! These alternations take place regularly, in the same positions, without exception, and have the character of a law.)

Contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [g'artskaya ® g'artskaya], [ts] ® [ts].

When groups of consonants are contracted, sound loss may occur: Sun- [son]. Usually these are combinations [vstv], [ntsk], [stl], etc.

Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:

Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)– (from the Greek diaresis – gap) – omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant– [g’igansk’iy].

Haplology– (from Greek gaplos – simple + logos – concept) omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralology, standard bearer, instead of standard bearer.

Metathesis– (from the Greek metathesis - rearrangement) rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from ticket.

Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, ndrav instead of disposition, scorpijon instead of scorpion in colloquial speech, the sound [th] in a word coffee(from coffee), sound [v] in a word singer(from sang) in literary speech.

Substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic of the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[в] instead of [w].

3. Historical alternations of sounds

Regular changes in sounds, not related to position in a word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:

vowel alternation:

[ e] –[ i] –[ o] –[ a] – [Ø] // sound zero: died - die; pestilence - to kill - I will die; take – collect – collection – collect;

[e] – [Ø] sound zero: stump - stump; faithful - faithful; wind - wind;

[o] – [Ø] – sound zero: forehead - forehead; bottomless - bottom; lie - to lie;

[s] – [Ø] – zero sound: send –ambassador - to send.

Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:

[i] – [th] – [her] – [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;

[s] – [oh] – [ov] – [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim – swimmer – swim; cover – cut – cover;

[y] – [ov] – [ev]: kuyu – forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;

[a] – [im] – [m]: reap – shake – press;

[a] – [in] – [n]: reap - reap - reap.

consonant alternation:

[g] – [f] – [z]: friend - be friends - friends; run - run; moisture – wet;

[k] – [h]: scream - shout; hand - manual; bake - bakes;

[x] – [w]: quiet - silence; dry – land; stuffiness - stuffy;

[z] – [z"] – [zh]: thunderstorm - threaten - threaten; carry - drive; smear - smear; climb - I get along;

[s] – [s"] – [w]: bring – carry – burden; scythe - mow - mow; ask - demand - request; high - height - higher;

[t] – [t"] – [h] – [w"]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return – return – return;

[d] – [f] – [zh]: gardens - planting - planting;

[n] – [n"]: change - change; torn - torn;

[l] – [l"]: business - efficient; prick - prickly;

[r] – [r"]: blow - to hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;

[b] – [b"] – [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;

[p] – [p"] – [pl"]: pour out - rash - pour out;

[v] – [v"] – [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;

[f] – [f"] – [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;

[sk] – [st] – [s"t"] – [w":]: shine - shine - sparkle - shines; start - let - lower;

[sk] – [w":]: crackle - crackle;

[st] – [w"]: whistle - whistle

4. Phonetic transcription

Phonetic transcription is the recording of spoken speech using special characters. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the nuances of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, e, yu, i. Letters ъ, ь are used in a different meaning. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È .... Ç. Basic signs adopted in phonetic transcription:

– square brackets to highlight transcribed sound units;

/ – a sign above the letter to indicate emphasis;

’ – a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;

L– a sign to indicate the sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after hard consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [сLды́], ;

ъ– a sign to indicate unstressed sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of the word: gardener– [sudLvot], young– [мълЛд΄й], as well as the unstressed sound [e] after unsoftened [zh], [sh], [ts] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement– [tsam’i e nt’i΄arv’t’].

b– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly– [h’sLvoy], forester– [l’sLvot];

and uh– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest– [l’i e snoy]; nickel– [p’i tak].

s uh – a sign to indicate a sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants f, w, c: regret– [zhy e l’et΄t’], price– [tsy e na΄],

γ – letter to indicate the fricative consonant indicated by the letter G in words: yeah, lord;

È – a bow under the line between words indicates a combined pronunciation of a function and an independent word: in rows– [пъ È р’ и е dam];

j– a letter to indicate the sound [th] at the beginning of words e,yo,yu, I, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb– [pLдjo΄м], his– [svj i e vo΄];

Ç – the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].

/ – mark of a beat pause when transcribing spoken speech: [s’i e rg’e΄ay ​​/ my friend//]

// – a sign of a phrasal pause when transcribing spoken speech:

[dom / and È s’t’e΄any pamLga΄jut //] .

Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the peculiarities of the pronunciation of a word in a particular area are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.

Literary pronunciation of words in the Russian language presupposes compliance with certain norms, which are reflected in the rules of transcription.

5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowel sounds:

1. The vowels O, A, E (in spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.

2. In all unstressed positions after hard consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika– [b llLlayk]; gardening .

The vowels I, Y, U do not change during pronunciation.

3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription they are conveyed by the sign - [вLда́]. This type of pronunciation is called let's say. Norm literary language- aka pronunciation.

4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If the word has a preposition, in the flow of speech it is one phonetic word and is transcribed in accordance with the general rule: to the garden[in ъглр΄т];

5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Z) is pronounced as I and transcribed using the [and e] sign: watch[ch'i e sy].

6. The vowel E (in spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as I and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l’i e snoy]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced unclearly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the sign [b]: forester– [l’sLvot], copse– [p'р' и е l'е΄сък].

7. The letters E, E, Yu, I are not used in transcription; in their place the sounds corresponding to the pronunciation (audible) are written: ball[m’ach’], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prolstornj jь].

8. After the hard consonants Ж, Ш, Ц in the first prestressed syllable, in place of the letter E in the transcription the sign [ы е] is written: want– [zhy e lat’], price– [tsi e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is conveyed by the sign [ъ]: yellowish[yellow].

9. After Zh, Sh, Ts in the stressed position, instead of the spelling rules I, the pronounced [s] is written in the transcription: number– [cy΄fr], lived– [lived], sewed- [whispered].

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonant sounds:

In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are deafened. Accommodation processes of consonant sounds (for example, rounding of the sound [t o ] in a word here) are usually not reflected in the transcriptions we use.

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Sell ​​transactions make a profit when the price of an asset depreciates, which usually happens during times of economic/financial turmoil. This method of earning money brought many speculators considerable profits in 2008, when there was a sharp drop in prices in many markets.

Features of position trading

The essence of position trading is to open trades in order to obtain maximum income from a trend. Position traders do not pay attention to minor price fluctuations and noise in the market. They try to find a major trend that may last for more than a few months. This method of trading has its advantages. The main one is that to trade in this way, a trader does not need to constantly be in front of a computer monitor. A trader just needs to carry out the analysis correctly, make a forecast for the future and open trades. Next, the trader simply observes the transactions and adjusts them if necessary. At the same time, the trader does not pay attention to market noise and minor pullbacks, so there is no need to constantly monitor orders.

How to identify places to enter the market

Identifying suitable places to enter the market in positional trading is carried out using several methods. Some speculators are looking for assets with good trend potential, but which are still fluctuating within a certain range. Sometimes you can open trades on assets that have already started a trend. The second case is more convenient for traders, since the trend has already appeared and its direction is known. All a trader needs to do is simply open an order in the direction of the trend. In this case, there is no need to spend special effort and time on conducting analysis and making a forecast. The main goal of a position trader is to identify an emerging trend and open an order in accordance with its direction.

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Is it worth using positional trading?

In order to receive a good income when conducting positional trading, you need to have a certain amount of money. With a small initial capital, a trader has no right to count on serious income. And the money management recommendations here are somewhat different. The stop loss, due to work on older time periods, is set a little further. Therefore, if a trader violates money management recommendations and invests most of the initial capital into a position, then Stop-Loss will not save him from losses if the price level begins to move in a direction unfavorable for the trader. And this can happen at any moment. The size of the correction or sideways movement can be 500 points on pairs with high volatility. It is recommended to start with a small deposit at first so that the trader can understand whether he can trade in such conditions. Not every trader will be able to keep an order open for several months, let alone years. While testing, you can continue to day trade and occasionally test your position trading trades. This method will help the trader understand for himself whether position trading is suitable for him.

If you cannot boast of having a large amount of free funds, then position trading is most likely not suitable for you, since with its help it is impossible to quickly disperse a small deposit.

Position trading is optimal choice for patient traders who are not chasing short-term income and can afford to invest capital in trading for a relatively long period.

In the flow of speech, the sounds of any language, including Russian, are in

dependent position in relation to each other, while undergoing various

modifications due to positional and combinatorial and

changes.

Positional changes are changes in sound that are caused by

are determined by the place (position) of the sound in a word. Positional changes appear in

in the form of regular alternations under different conditions of implementation of one

phonemes. For example, in a series of words steam - pairs - steam locomotive there is an alternating row

represented by the following sounds: [а]////[ъ], the appearance of which is explained

is a qualitative reduction (change in vowel sounds in unstressed

positions). The positional process of the vowel region is reduction, in

consonant areas – deafening of a voiced paired consonant in the end position

Combinatorial changes are changes in sound that

which are caused by the interaction of sounds with each other. As a result,

whose interaction there is often a layering of articulation of one

sound to the articulation of another (coarticulation). There are several types

combinatorial changes – accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, diet

cutting, prosthesis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, but not all of the mentioned pro-

processes characterize the literary form of the Russian language. For example,

metathesis (tubarette, ralek), prosthesis and epenthesis (kakava, radivo) are more common

are found in common speech, dialects of popular speech.

Regular changes within a phonetic word, dictated by

the nature of the phonetic position is called positional exchange (position

tion alternation).

Sounds in the stream of speech change qualitatively depending on position

and quantitatively. Qualitative changes lead to the fact that different sounds

ki coincide: for example, phonemes<а>And<о>in words water and vapor realize -

in one sound; this type of alternation is called crossing

living. Changes that do not lead to the coincidence of different sounds are relative

are moving towards parallel types of exchange. For example, changing in unstressed 38

positions, phonemes<и>And<у>however, they will not match. N.M. Shansky in his

works adheres to a different understanding of the types of exchange and distinguishes between positional

new exchange and positional changes.

Positional exchange of vowels

The positional change of vowel sounds is observed in two types: (1) parallel

lineal and (2) intersecting.

(1) The parallel type of positional exchange of vowel sounds is due to

two processes - accommodation and quantitative reduction. Accomodation-

tion is an adaptation of the articulation of a front vowel in a strong

position to the articulation of a nearby soft consonant. As a result, ac-

comodation, the vowel sound partially changes the zone of its formation, but with

In this case, no significant qualitative changes occur, since

The process concerns only percussive sounds. Changes are happening in several

positions: after soft (t’a), before soft (at’) and between soft (t’at’) co-

vowels. There are progressive accommodation and regressive accommodation.

Consider, for example, a series of words with phonemes<а>, <о>, <у>.

<а>– [slept], [sp’at], [spat’], [p’at’] – [a] // [·a ] // [a·] // [a·];

<о>– [ox], [v’ol], [vol’b], [t’ot’b] – [o] // [·o] // [o·] // [·o·];

<у>– [bow], [l’uk], [bow], on [l’uk’] – [u] // [·у] // [у·] // [·у·].

In the given series there are no coincidences in sound.

The second reason leading to the parallel type is quantitative

reduction. High vowels are subject to quantitative reduction.

With quantitative reduction, only the strength and duration change

unstressed sound, the quality characteristics do not change in the ranks of

Also, the same sounds will not be found: [u]chit – na[u]chit –

vy[u]chen; [i]games – to [i]play – to win [i]play.

(2) The overlapping type of positional exchange of vowels is associated with the quality

vein reduction of phonemes<а>, <о>, <э >. In unstressed position all vowels

for non-upper lifting, two main positions should be taken into account: a) positive

tion of the first pre-stressed syllable and the absolute beginning of the word; b) position second-

horn, third prestressed and all overstressed syllables. In this case, you should learn

It is clear that the quality of the vowel sound is influenced by the hardness/softness of the preceding

howling consonant sound.

Vowel phonemes<а>, <о>after hard consonants in first position

do not differ and are realized in sound: water - vda, gardens - sdy, po-

current - current. In the second position after hard consonants the phoneme , 39

Speech sounds- These are vibrations in the air caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone- These are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise- these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength and duration.

Pitch is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range from 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one vibration per second. Sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds) are not perceived by humans, unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and higher, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The main frequencies of human communication are usually within the range of 500 - 4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds from 40 to 1700 Hz. For example, bass usually starts at 80 Hz, and soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural frequency of vibration of the eardrum is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for humans - the sound of the sea, the forest - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of vibrations of a man's speech sounds is 100 - 200 Hz, in contrast to women, who speak with a frequency of 150 - 300 Hz (since men's vocal cords are on average 23 mm, and women's are 18 mm, and the longer the cords, the lower the tone) .

The power of sound(loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. on the amplitude of oscillations (the amount of deviation from the original position). The amplitude of vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

The strength of sound is measured in decibels. A whisper is defined as 20 - 30 dB, normal speech is from 40 to 60 dB, the volume of a scream reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing at up to 110 - 130 dB. The Guinness Book of World Records records the record of a fourteen-year-old girl who screamed over a taking off airliner with an engine volume of 125 dB. When the sound intensity exceeds 130 dB, ear pain begins.

Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the greater the power. But, for example, in the word “saw” the vowel [i], being unstressed and generally having less power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed [a]. The fact is that higher sounds seem louder, and the sound [i] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitches are perceived as sounds of different volumes. It should be noted that sound intensity and loudness are not equivalent, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by a person's hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is background, equal to a decibel.

Sound duration, i.e. the oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

Sound has a complex composition. It consists of a fundamental tone and overtones (resonator tones).

Base tone is a tone generated by vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone- a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone (“upper tone”) is always a multiple of the fundamental tone, hence its name. For example, if the fundamental tone is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, etc. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of a body when it perceives a sound wave that has the same frequency as the vibration frequency of this body. The overtones are usually weak, but are amplified by resonators. Speech intonation is created by changing the frequency of the fundamental tone, and timbre is created by changing the frequency of overtones.

Timbre- This is a kind of coloring of sound created by overtones. It depends on the relationship between the fundamental tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, distinguish the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. Each person's timbre is strictly individual and unique, like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in forensic science.

Formanta- these are overtones amplified by resonators that characterize a given sound. Unlike the vocal tone, the formant is not formed in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it persists even when whispering. In other words, this is the band of concentration of sound frequencies that receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of resonators. With the help of formants we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the spectrum of a vowel sound are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person’s voice is characterized by its own voice formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characteristics of consonants are very complex and difficult to determine, but vowels can be characterized with sufficient reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of elevation of the tongue, and the second is the degree of advancement of the tongue). Below are tables illustrating the above. It should only be borne in mind that the quantitative data presented are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the vowel ratios, despite the discrepancy in numbers, remain approximately the same for everyone, i.e. the first formant, for example, of the vowel [i] will always be smaller than that of [a], and the second is larger.

The frequency characteristics of sounds are flexible, since the formants are correlated with the lowest fundamental tone, and it is also changeable. In addition, in live speech, each sound may have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound may differ from the middle and ending in formants. It is very difficult for a listener to identify sounds isolated from a stream of speech.

When communicating using language, a person pronounces sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses the speech apparatus, which consists of the following components:

1. speech organs;
2. hearing organs;
3. organs of vision.

Articulation of speech sounds is the work of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a sound. The speech organs themselves include:

• the brain, which through the motor speech center (Broca's area) sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of speech production (articulation);
• breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and chest), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;
• organs of speech pronunciation (articulation), which are usually also called speech organs (in the narrow sense).

Organs of articulation are divided into active and passive. Active organs perform the movements necessary to produce sound, and passive organs are fulcrum points for the active organ.

Passive organs- these are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, upper jaw.

• cricoid cartilage, located below other cartilages. It is narrower in front and wider in back;
• thyroid cartilage, located at the top in front (in men it protrudes like an Adam’s apple, or adam's apple, because the two plates forming it make an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110), covers the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;
• paired arytenoid cartilage in the form of two triangles located at the back from above. They can move apart and move.

Speech organs (pronunciation apparatus)

Russian and Latin names of speech organs and their derivatives

Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage there are mucous folds, which are called vocal cords. They converge and diverge with the help of the arytenoid cartilages, forming the glottis various shapes. During non-speech breathing and when pronouncing dull sounds, they are spread apart and relaxed. The gap has the shape of a triangle.

A person speaks as he exhales, while he inhales only the donkeys shout: “ya.” Inhalation is also used when yawning.

People with a larynx amputation are also able to speak with a so-called esophageal voice, using muscle folds in the esophagus as a larynx.

To produce sound great importance has an oral (epiglottic) cavity in which noises and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating timbre. The size and shape of the mouth and nose play a big role.

The tongue is a mobile organ that performs two speech functions:

• depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator;
• creates barriers when pronouncing consonants.

The lips and tongue also serve as a barrier.

The soft palate in an elevated position blocks the entrance to the nasal cavity, and sounds will not have a nasal overtone. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream passes freely through the nose, and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants and consonants.

Each language usually has about 50 speech sounds. They are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, air passes freely without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some kind of obstacle and a certain place of formation - the focus. The set of vowels in a language is called vocalism, and the set of consonants is called consonantism. As their name suggests, vowels are formed using the voice, i.e. they are always sonorant.

Vowel classification

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulatory features:

1. Row, i.e. depending on which part of the tongue is raised during pronunciation. When the front part of the tongue is raised, front vowels (i, e), middle - average(s), rear - rear vowels (o, u).

2. Rise, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of varying volumes. Vowels differ open, or, in other words, wide(a) and closed, that is narrow(and, y).

In some languages, for example, in it. and French, sounds similar in articulation differ only in a slight difference in the rise of the tongue.

3. Labialization those. depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by rounding of the lips extended forward or not.

There are rounded (labial, labialized), for example, [⊃], [υ] and unrounded vowels, for example, [i], [ε].

4. Nasalization those. depending on whether the velum is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass simultaneously through the mouth and nose, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, for example, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages ​​are non-nasal (formed when the palatine curtain is raised, blocking the path of air flow through the nose), but in some languages ​​(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic) nasal vowels are widely used along with non-nasal vowels.

5. Longitude. In a number of languages ​​(English, German, Latin, Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are contrasted in duration of pronunciation, i.e. they differ, for example, short vowels: [a], [i], [⊃], [υ] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [⊃:], .

In Latin and ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic meters (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic meters, which are based on dynamic stress.

This is clearly seen in the first words of Virgil’s poem “Aeneid,” written in dactyl (hexameter):

A rma vir um que cano (long syllables emphasized)

A rma v i rumque c a no (dynamic accents highlighted)

6. Diphthongization

In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs And diphthongs. A monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically uniform vowel.

A diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One diphthong element is always stronger than the other element. Diphthongs are of two types - descending And ascending.

In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong and the second weaker. Such diphthongs are characteristic of English. and German language: time, Zeit.

In an ascending diphthong, the first element is weaker than the second. Such diphthongs are typical for French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro.

For example, in such proper names as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

In Russian language There are no diphthongs. The combination “vowel + th” in the words “paradise” and “tram” cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declensed, this quasi-diphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for the diphthong: “tram-em, para-yu”. But in Russian language meet diphthongoids.

A diphthongoid is a stressed heterogeneous vowel that has at the beginning or end the sound of another vowel, articulatory close to the main, stressed one. There are diphthongoids in the Russian language: house is pronounced “DuoOoM”.

Classification of consonants

There are 4 main articulatory features of consonants.

• Sonants in which the voice dominates the noise (m, n, l, p).
• Noisy ringing. Noise prevails over voice (b, c, d, h, g).
• Noisy voiceless words that are pronounced without voice (p, f, t, s, w).

2. Method of articulation

The essence of this method is the nature of overcoming the obstacle.

• Occlusive consonants are formed by a stop forming an obstruction air stream. They are divided into three groups:
  1. explosive. Their bow ends with an explosion (p, b, t, d, k, g);
  2. affricates. Their bow passes into the gap without explosion (ts, h);
  3. stops nasals, which have a stop without a stop (m, n).
• Slotted consonants are formed by the friction of a stream of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstacle. They are also called fricatives (Latin " frico" - true) or spirants (Latin " spiro" - blowing): (v, f, s, w, x);
• Occlusion-slit, which include the following sonants:
  1. lateral(l), in which the bow and fissure are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);
  2. trembling(p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.

3. Active organ

According to the active organ, consonants are divided into three groups:

• Labial two types:
  1. labiolabial (bilabial) (p, b, m)
  2. labiodental (v, f)
• Lingual consonants, which are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual;
  1. front-lingual divided into (according to the position of the tip of the tongue):
     • dorsal(Latin dorsum- dorsum): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);
     • apical(lat. arekh- top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);
     • kakuminal(lat. cacumen- top), or bifocal, during articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, g, h) to the front palate, and the back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. There are two foci of noise generation.
  2. although middle-language consonants, the middle part of the tongue approaches the hard palate, they are perceived as soft (th); this phenomenon is also called palatalization;
  3. back-lingual consonants include (k, h). Plingual are divided into three groups:
     • reed (uvular), for example, French [r];
     • pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German [h];
     • laryngeal: they are found as separate sounds in the Arabic language.

4. Passive organ

According to the passive organ, i.e. place of articulation, distinguished between dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate, soft sounds are formed (th, l, th, s, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by bringing the tongue closer to the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

Syllable- the minimum unit of pronunciation of speech sounds into which you can divide your speech by pauses. The word in speech is divided not into sounds, but into syllables. In speech, it is syllables that are recognized and pronounced. Therefore, with the development of writing among all peoples, syllabic signs first appeared in the alphabets, and only then letters reflecting individual sounds.

The division into syllables is based on the difference in sonority of sounds. A sound that is more sonorous than neighboring sounds is called syllabic and forms a syllable.

A syllable usually has a peak (core) and a periphery. As a core, i.e. The syllabic sound is usually a vowel, and the periphery consists of a non-syllabic sound or several such sounds, usually represented by consonants. But a syllable can consist of only one vowel without any peripherals, e.g. diphthong in English pronouns I“I” or two or more vowels (Italian. vuoi). Peripheral vowels are non-syllabic.

But syllables may not have a vowel, for example, in the patronymic Ivanovna or in the interjections “ks-ks”, “tsss”. Consonants can be syllabic if they are sonants or occur between two consonants. Such syllables are very common in the Czech language: prst“finger” (cf. Old Russian. finger), trh“market” (cf. Russian. bargain), vlk"wolf", srdce, srbsky, Trnka(famous Czech linguist). In a sentence Vlk prchl skrz tvrz(the wolf ran through the fortress) there is not a single vowel. But in examples from the Czech language it is clear that the syllabic consonant is always sonorant.

The division into syllables is explained by different theories that complement each other.

Sonoration theory: in a syllable, the most sonorous sound is the syllabic. Therefore, in order of decreasing sonority, syllabic sounds most often are vowels, sonorant voiced consonants, noisy voiced consonants, and sometimes voiceless consonants (tss).

Dynamic theory: syllabic sound is the strongest, most intense.

Expiratory theory: a syllable is created by one moment of exhalation, a push of exhaled air. The number of syllables in a word is the number of times the candle flame flickers when the word is pronounced. But often the flame behaves contrary to the laws of this theory (for example, with a two-syllable “ay” it will flutter once).

Types of syllables

Open syllable is a syllable ending with a vowel sound, e.g. yeah, oh.

Closed syllable is a syllable ending with a consonant, e.g. hell, mind, cat.

Covered syllable begins with a consonant sound, e.g. glad, pop.

Uncovered syllable starts with a vowel sound: ah, he, ah, really.

In Russian, the syllables are mostly open, while in Japanese almost all are open (Fu-ji-ya-ma, i-ke-ba-na, sa-mu-rai, ha-ra-ki-ri).

There are also cases of extremely closed and covered syllables, for example, splash, English. and fr. strict(strict), German sprichst(you speak), Georgian - msxverpl(victim).

There are languages ​​where the roots and syllables are the same. Such languages ​​are called monosyllabic, e.g. whale. language - typical monosyllabic.

Often in speech it is very difficult to determine the boundary of a syllable.

Rus. They led me by the arm and took my friends away. They beat the viper - they killed the vipers. Palette - half a liter.

English an ocean - a notion; an aim - a name.

Sound units of language can be segmental (linear) and supersegmental.

Segmental units- these are sounds (phonemes), syllables, words, etc. Longer language units are divided into shorter segments.

Supersegmental units, or otherwise prosodic(from Greek prosodia- refrain, stress) are layered onto a chain of segments - syllables, words, phrases, sentences. Typical supersegmental units are stress and intonation.

Tact- a group of words united by one stress and separated from each other by a pause.

Proclitic- unstressed syllable before a stressed syllable, e.g. I d at small.

Enclitic- unstressed syllable after a stressed syllable, e.g. zn A Yu I .

Unstressed words - articles, prepositions, particles - often act as enclitics. Sometimes they pull the emphasis on themselves: “p O d hand."

Thus, the boundaries of words and measures may not coincide.

Accent

Stress (accent) is the emphasis of a sound, syllable, word, group of words.

The three main types of stress are force, quantity and musical.

1. Power (dynamic) stress is related to the amplitude of the vibrations of the sound wave; the greater the amplitude, the stronger the sound is pronounced.
2. Quantitative (quantitative) stress is associated with the duration, length of the sound; a stressed syllable has a longer duration than unstressed syllables.
3. Musical (polytonic) stress is associated with the relative pitch of the tone, with a change in this pitch.

Usually in languages ​​that have stress, all three stresses are intertwined, but one of them predominates and the main type of stress in a particular language is determined by it.

In Russian, force stress, being the main one, is accompanied by the length of the stressed syllable.

Intonation

Intonation refers to all prosodic phenomena in syntactic units - phrases and words.

Intonation consists of the following 5 elements, the first two of which are the main components of intonation:

1. melody of speech (voice movement in pitch);
2. accent;
3. pause;
4. rate of speech;
5. voice timbre.

1. Combinatorial. Depending on the proximity of other sounds.
2. Positional changes. Associated with position in an unstressed syllable, at the end of a word, etc.

1. Combinatorial sound variation

A. Accommodation

Accommodation is the adaptation of the articulation of consonants under the influence of vowels and vowels under the influence of consonants.

Two types of accommodation - progressive and regressive.

The excursion is the beginning of articulation. Recursion is the end of articulation.

Progressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound affects the excursion of the subsequent one. For example, in Russian, the vowels “a”, “o”, “u” after soft consonants are more advanced (mat - mint, mol - chalk, luk - hatch).

Regressive accommodation- the recursion of the previous sound is influenced by the excursion of the subsequent one. For example, in Russian, a vowel in the vicinity of “m” or “n” is nasalized (in the word “dom” the articulation of “m” is anticipated by the nasalization of the vowel “o”, and in the word “bratu” “t” is pronounced with a rounding before “u” ").

B. Assimilation and its types.

1. Consonantal and vocal assimilation

Consonantal assimilation- likening a consonant to a consonant, for example. in the word “boat” the voiced consonant “d” is replaced by a voiceless “t” - (“tray”).

Vocal assimilation- likening a vowel to a vowel, for example, instead of “it happens” in common parlance it is often said “byvat”.

2. Progressive and regressive assimilation

Progressive assimilation- the preceding sound influences the subsequent one. In Russian language progressive assimilation very rare, for example, the dialect pronunciation of the word “Vanka” as “Vankya”. Progressive assimilation is often found in English. ( cats, balls), French- subsister, German, bash. (at + lar = attar) and other languages.

Regressive assimilation- the subsequent sound affects the previous one. It is most typical for the Russian language “boat [tray]”, vodka [votka], “got up at three [fstal f tri]”

In eng. " newspaper"[z] under the influence of [p] turns into [s], in fr. absolu[b] - in [p], German. Staub ends with [p].

In bash. "kitep bara" ( leaves) turns into “kitebbara”.

3. Complete and incomplete assimilation

An example of complete assimilation is the word “assimilation” itself [ ad(j) + simil(similar, identical) + atio(suffix) = assimilatio)]. A similar example of assimilation is “agglutination” [ ad + glutin(glue) + atio = agglutinatio].

Rus. sew [shshhyt], highest (highest), eng. cupboard“cabinet”, “buffet” is pronounced [´k∧bed]. German Zimber turned into Zimmer"room", selbst"sam" is pronounced .

With incomplete assimilation, the sound loses only part of its characteristics, for example, “where - where”, “sitting - here”, where consonants lose the sign of voicing.

4. Distant and contact assimilation

Distant assimilation. One sound influences another at a distance, although they are separated from each other by other sounds.

Rus. hooligan - hooligan (colloquial), English. foot"leg" - feet"legs", goose"goose" - geese"geese". In Old English language fori(plural number from fot"leg"), " i" changed the vowel of the root and then dropped out. It's the same in him. language: Fuss"leg"- Fusse"legs", Gans"goose"- Gänse"geese".

With contact assimilation, the interacting sounds are in direct contact.

Synharmonism

Synharmonism (vowel harmony)- distact progressive assimilation along the row and labialization. Vowels of suffixes and usually non-first syllables of a word are likened by row or by rounding (front vowels - front vowels, back vowels - back vowels), i.e. for example, in in a simple word There can only be vowels “i”, “e” or only “u”, “o”.

This phenomenon is characteristic, for example, of the languages ​​of the Turkic family of languages ​​(Turkish, Bashkir, Tatar, Uzbek and others), Finno-Ugric languages ​​(Hungarian, Finnish and others), as well as one of ancient languages- Sumerian.

For example, ball(child) + lar(plural ending) = balalar. Here all the vowels are back: the vowel [a] in bash. language closer to the back row.

But for the word “keshe” (person), the ending will not be “lar”, but “ler” - kesheler. Letter uh denotes the front vowel [ae].

More examples: Hung. levelemben"in my letter" Magyarorszagon"in Hungary", köszönöm“thank you” (synharmonism by labialization), Finn. talossa- “in the house”, tour. evlerinde"in their house." Traces of synharmonism are clearly visible in Russian borrowed from the Turkic languages. words drum, chipmunk, pencil, cockroach and etc.

Synharmonism emphasizes the unity of the word, but leads to some phonetic monotony of the words.

Dissimilation

This is the opposite of assimilation. Represents the dissimilarity of articulation of two identical or similar sounds.

February turned into February(cf. English) February, German February, fr. fevrier), corridor - corridor(colloquially), fr. couroir - couloir(Russian couloir), camel - camel- examples of distant dissimilation.

Contact dissimilation is observed in words easily[lehko], boring[boring].

Metathesis

Metathesis(gr. permutation) - mutual rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word.

Word marmor(gr. μαρμαρος) passed into Russian. marble, taler (German) Teller or Swedish talrik) - plate, dolon became palm, cheesecake - cheesecake, rigging - rigging, neuro(-pathologist) - nerve. English thridda - third (third), german brennen switched to English burn (burn), bridd - in bird (bird).

German Brennstein - Bernstein, fr. formaticu - fromage.

For example, USSR President Gorbachev always pronounced Arzebazhan instead of Azerbaijan - it was more convenient for him.

Haplology

Haplology(Greek: ´απλοος [ haplos] - simple) - simplification of a word due to dissimilation, in which the same or similar syllables are dropped. For example, miner lolo gya - mineralogy, core nope syy - snub-nosed, bli zozo bright - myopic, tragic coco media - tragicomedy, sti Pepe India - scholarship. But in the word itself gap lolo gia - haplology (*haplogy) No.

Eng. miners" rights instead of miners's rights(if identical sounding formants of the plural and the possessive case coincide, the last formant disappears).

2. Positional changes

A. Reduction

Change (weakening) of consonant and vowel sounds in quality and quantity (length) depending on their place in the word, location in unstressed syllables, etc.

Rus. d O m - house A- houses O childhood In unstressed syllables, “o” is reduced. The reduction can be complete: Vanya - Vanya, Ivanovich - Ivanovich, Ivanovna - Ivanna.

Eng. nama-name(the second vowel was first reduced partially, and then completely, remaining in spelling). Good morning - g"morning - morning.

Apocope- loss of sound at the end of a word: so - so.

Syncope- loss of sound not at the end of the word: Ivanovich - Ivanovich.

B. Stun

Loss of voicing occurs in many languages. This is usually explained by the premature return of the vocal cords to a resting state, e.g. meadows - meadow[onion], pipe - pipes[dead body].

Prosthesis- the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word, for example, Russian. osem - eight, mustache - caterpillar, fatherland - patrimony, Spanish - estudiante from lat. students, estrella from Stella(star), bash. ystakan, yshtan(glass, pants), Hung. asztal(table).

Epenthesis- the appearance of a sound in the middle of a word, for example. rus. Italy[Italy] from Italia, John - Ivan, in common parlance - kakava, rubel, shpien, bash. and Tat. pronunciation of “iks”, “act” as [ikis], [akyt].

Epithesis- the appearance of a sound at the end of a word: Russian. song - song.

Substitution. Replacing a sound alien to a given language with the sound of the native language, for example, German. Herzog- Duke, Hitler- Hitler (sound corresponding to German. " h"not in Russian), English. meeting- rally (sound " ng"[η] is absent in Russian), instead of fr. sound denoted by letter u (tu, pure) and German ü in Russian language written and pronounced [yu].

Diaeresis(Greek: miscarriage). Omission of sound: Russian. with l ntse, sir d tse, ches T ny, wait a minute T lush; bash. ultyr (sit down) - utyr.

Elision. Dropping the final vowel before the preceding vowel. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of Romance languages, for example, French. l"arbre(article le + arbre), D"Artagnan - de Artagnan, D"Arc - de Arc), bash. neither ashley - nishley.

Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are considered not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Phoneme

The basic concept in phonology is phoneme. The term “phoneme” was introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of French nobles, Ivan (Jan) Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), the founder of the Kazan school of linguistics. He considered the phoneme to be a mental version of the sounds of a language.

Phoneme- this is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of ​​sound. The phoneme cannot be pronounced, only the shades of the phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the specific.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example, [a] can be pronounced differently in pitch, strength, duration, timbre, but all the different millions of sounds [a] are designated by one letter, reflecting one sound type, one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet are often not the same, but parallels can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages ​​it almost coincides. A phoneme can be roughly described as a letter in the sound alphabet. If in a stream of speech of thousands of different sounds it is possible to distinguish different words, it is only thanks to phonemes.

Consequently, a phoneme is the minimum sound unit of a language system that allows one to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.

In the word “milk” one phoneme /o/ is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed.

Thus, a phoneme is an abstraction, a type, a model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts of “phoneme” and “speech sound” do not coincide.

In a word " boy» two phonemes, not three, as it differs from words by, be, bee, bar etc.

There are also cases when two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word “children’s” /t/ and /s/ sound like one sound [ts], and in the word “sew” /s/ and /sh/ sound like a long [sh].

Each phoneme is a set of essential features by which it differs from other phonemes. For example, /t/ is voiceless in contrast to voiced /d/, front-lingual in contrast to /p/, plosive in contrast to /s/, etc.

The features by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.

For example, in Russian language the word “there” can be pronounced with short [a] and long [a:], but the meaning of the word will not change. Consequently, in Russian these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme. But in English and German language Phonemes also differ in longitude. bit And bee, German Bann And Bahn). In Russian language the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential feature, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal.

General features that cannot be used to distinguish phonemes are called integral features. For example, the voicing feature of [b] is not a distinctive (differential), but an integral feature in relation to [x]. The phoneme is realized in the form of one of the possible options. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are called allophones. Sometimes the terms " shade"(Russian linguist Lev Shcherba) or " divergent"(Baudouin de Courtenay).

Strong position Phonemes are positions where phonemes clearly reveal their properties: catfish, myself.

Weak position- this is the position of neutralization of phonemes, where phonemes do not perform distinctive functions: With O ma, s A ma; n O ha, n A ha; ro To, ro G; ro T, ro d .

Neutralization of phonemes- this is the coincidence of different phonemes in one allophone.

The same phoneme can change its sound, but only within limits that do not affect its distinctive features. No matter how much birch trees differ from each other, they cannot be confused with oak.

Phonetic variants of phonemes are mandatory for all native speakers. If a man pronounces a sound in a low voice and lisps, and a girl pronounces a sound in a high voice and burrs, then these sounds will not be phonetic, obligatory variants of phonemes. This is a random, individual, speech, not linguistic variation.

Distribution

To identify the phonemes of a particular language, you need to know in what positions they occur. Distribution - distribution of phonemes according to pronunciation positions.

1. Contrasting distribution

Two sounds occur in the same environment and yet distinguish words. In this case, they are representatives of different phonemes.

For example, from a number of words “tom, house, lump, scrap, rum, som” it is clear that in Russian. language there are phonemes /t/, /d/, /k/, /l/, /m/, /s/, since in the same environment [ ohm] they allow you to distinguish different words.

2. Additional distribution

Two sounds never occur in the same environment and the meaning of words is not distinguished.

They are variants, allophones of the same phoneme.

For example, the vowel phoneme /e/ in Russian can have different allophones depending on different environments.

In the word “seven” [e] appears as the most closed allophone (after the soft and before the soft consonant)yu

In the word “sel” [e] appears as a less closed allophone (after a soft consonant and before a hard consonant).

In the word “six” [e] appears as a more open allophone (after the hard consonant and before the soft consonant).

In the word “pole” [e] appears as the most open allophone (after the hard consonant and before the hard consonant).

In Russian, [ы] is considered a variant of the phoneme /i/ in the position after hard consonants. For example, be - beat. Therefore, despite the visually identical environment, here we have different environments [bit´] - [b´it´]

In Japanese, the phoneme /r/ is pronounced as an intermediate between [r] and [l], and these sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.

3. Free variation (alternation)

Sounds occur in the same environments and do not differentiate between words and meanings. These are variants of the same linguistic unit.

For example, in French language There are two variants of /r/ - front-lingual (vibrating) as in Russian and uvular (grassing). The last option is normative, but the first is quite acceptable. In Russian, both options are equal - “land” and “earth”.

Phonological schools. Trubetskoy's phonology

On the issue of neutralizing phonemes in words like “meadow”, there are different points of view regarding the phoneme denoted by the letter “g”, but reflecting the unvoiced sound [k].

Linguists related to Leningrad school(Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba and others) believe that in the pair “meadow - meadows” the sounds [k] and [g] belong to two different phonemes /k/ and /g/.

However, linguists Moscow school(Avanesov, Reformatsky, etc.) based on the morphological principle, they believe that in the word “meadow” the sound [k] is a variant of the phoneme /r/. They also believe that for the variants [k] and [g] in the words “lug-luga” there is a common phoneme / k/y/, which they called hyperphoneme.

Hyperphoneme combines all the characteristics of the sounds [k] and [g] - velarity, explosiveness, deafness, sonority, etc. The same hyperphoneme / a/o/ is present in the unstressed first vowels in the words “b” A ran", "m O l O ko".

The outstanding Russian linguist Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890-1938), one of the theorists of the Prague linguistic circle (scientific school), which he joined in exile after the 1917 revolution, believed that in this case there is a special phoneme, which he called an archiphoneme.

Archphoneme- this is a set of common features of neutralizing phonemes.

For example, archiphoneme / k/y/ combines the common features of the neutralizing phonemes /k/ and /g/ without the voicing that separates them.

If an archiphoneme is a unit with an incomplete set of features, then a hyperphoneme is a double or even triple set of features. In his classic work “Fundamentals of Phonology” N.S. Trubetskoy also gave a classification of phonological oppositions, i.e. contrasting phonemes in order to identify similarities and differences.

1. Private oppositions

Private (lat. privo- deprive) oppositions are distinguished by the presence or absence of any feature in a pair of phonemes, for example, in one of the members of the pair b/p there is no sonority, but the other has it.

2. Gradual oppositions

Gradual (lat. degree- degree) of opposition are distinguished by different degrees of attribute that members of the opposition have.

For example, /e/ and /i/ in Russian. language in particular, they differ in different degrees of tongue elevation during articulation.

In English the opposition involves three vowels with varying degrees of openness: /i/, /e/, /ae/.

3. Equivalent oppositions

All members of the opposition have equal rights; their signs are so heterogeneous that there is no basis for contrasting the signs.

E.g. consonants /b/, /d/, /g/ are articulated in completely different ways: one is labial, the other is anterior lingual, the third is posterior lingual, and they are united only by the fact that they are consonants.

Phoneme systems

Each language has its own phoneme system (phonological system).

Phonological systems differ from each other:

1. Number of phonemes.
2. The relationship between vowel and consonant phonemes.
3. Phonological oppositions.

Different languages ​​have organizations of phoneme groups (phonological oppositions) specific to their systems.

For example, in Russian language phonemically contrasting hard and soft consonants., in French - nasal and non-nasal consonants, in English. and German languages ​​- long and short vowels.

Relationships between vowel and consonant phonemes in some languages

In some works, you can find numbers that differ from those given below, since researchers rely on different criteria for defining and counting phonemes (for example, they include borrowed phonemes or exclude diphthongs, etc.).

If we take into account the implementation of phonemes in speech (all phonetic variants), then the ratio of vowels and consonants in each language will be different than in the table, for example, in English. 38% - 62%, in it. language 36% - 64%, in French 44% - 56%.