What is positional trading. Strong positions on deafness of voicedness. Distact and contact assimilation

Issues covered:

1. Types of alternations of sounds.
2. Positional alternations sounds:

a) positional alternations of vowel sounds;

b) positional alternations of consonant sounds.

3. Historical alternations of sounds.
4. Phonetic transcription.
5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants.

Key concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, sound position, positional alternations of sounds, combinatorial alternations of sounds, accommodation, quantitative and qualitative reduction, assimilation, dissimilation,constriction, diaeresis, epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, deafening of consonants at the end of a word, historical alternations of sounds, phonetic transcription.

1. Types of alternations of sounds

During speech, some sounds can be replaced by others. If this replacement is permanent, regular, and explained by the same reasons, then we say that there is a process of alternation and not an erroneous pronunciation. The relationship of regular replacement of some sounds with others in the same phonetic conditions is called alternating.

Alternations associated with the position of a sound are called positional alternations. Alternations caused by phonetic processes that took place in the past are called historical alternations.

All types of sound alternations can be presented in the following table:

Types of sound alternations

Despite the alternations, we recognize sounds, and therefore words, since alternations are associated with the relationships of sounds (phonemes) within a system, where units are connected to each other in some way. In language, there are two main (global) types of interactions, interconnections (relations) of units: syntagmatic(linear) – relations of mutual influence of neighboring units and paradigmatic(non-linear, vertical) – relations of unification of homogeneous units based on associations.

In phonetics, the influence of adjacent sounds on each other is a syntagmatic relationship, and recognizing similar sounds and mentally linking them into the same sound, regardless of sound, is paradigmatic (for example, when a speaker recognizes that the sounds [b], [b' ], [n] in the words [oaks], , [du΄p] are the same typical sound).

2. Positional alternations of sounds (Syntagmatic relations)

Sounds in a stream of speech are pronounced with different strengths and clarity depending on sound positions.Sound position – this is its immediate environment, as well as its position at the beginning, at the end of a word, at the junction of morphemes, and for vowels, its position in relation to stress.

There are two types of changes in sounds in the speech stream.

Positional changes – these are changes in sound associated with its position (for example, deafening at the end of a word, weakening of unstressed vowels [o], [a], [e]). Types of Positional Changes: stun at the end of a word , reduction (weakening of sound), assimilation, dissimilation, contraction of sounds, prolapse (diaeresis), epenthesis, metathesis, haplology, substitution, accommodation.

Combinatorial changes – these are changes associated with the influence of sounds on each other. Combinatorial changes include all types of positional changes, except for deafening at the end of a word and reduction, since these processes are associated only with position in the word, and not with the influence of other sounds.

2 a) Positional alternations of vowel sounds

The main type of positional changes in vowel sounds is reduction. Reduction happens quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative reduction – decrease in length and sound strength - typical for sounds [and], [s], [y] not under stress. Compare, for example, the pronunciation of [s] in different positions of the word [was - experienced]). High-quality reduction– weakening with some change in sound. For example, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are in an unstressed position. Wed: sound of vowels in words hammer And hammer: [molt], [mlLtok].

The sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants are pronounced as reduced sounds [L] in the first pre-stressed position and at the absolute beginning of the word and as a reduced sound [ъ] in other positions (2nd, 3rd syllable before or after stress , For example, milk– [milLko], beard– [barLda]. After soft consonants, the sounds [a], [o], [e] are pronounced as reduced sounds [and e], [b] - Rowan[r"i e b"in], hourly[h"sLvoy].

The sound [e] in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as the sound [and e], in the rest - [b]. For example: flight– [p"r"i e l"ot].

In foreign words, the qualitative reduction of vowels [o], [e] appears irregularly: piano– [рLjал"], but boa[boa], remark[r"and e mark], but metro[m "etro".

Positional changes in vowel sounds undergoing reduction can be presented in the following table:

Combinatorial changes vowels arise as a result of the adaptation of the articulation of the vowel to the articulation of the preceding and subsequent sounds and are called accommodation. Wed. pronunciation of [o] in words they say[they say], chalk[m’·ol], mole[mo·l’]. Accommodation can be progressive (®): chalk[m’·ol] and regressive (¬): mole[mo·l’].

Thus, characterizing changes in vowel sounds in a word, we consider two aspects: 1. Positional - in relation to stress (reduction is qualitative, quantitative or vowel without change); 2. Combinatorial - the presence in the neighborhood (right and left) of soft consonant sounds (progressive, regressive, progressive-regressive accommodation or no accommodation). For example, birch[b'i e r'oz]:

[and e] – positional changes(in relation to stress): qualitative reduction; combinatorial changes (depending on the influence of neighbors): progressive-regressive accommodation.

[·o] – there are no positional changes, because stressed vowel; combinatorial changes – progressive accommodation.

[ъ] – positional changes: qualitative reduction; there are no combinatorial changes.

2 b) Positional alternations of consonant sounds

As a result of the adaptation of the consonant to the articulation of the subsequent sound (usually a rounded vowel), a process arises consonant accommodation. Wed. the sound of the sound [t] in words – So And That: [sic] – [t o from].

Much more common than accommodation are other changes in consonant sounds.

Assimilation – similarity on any basis. Assimilation happens:

• by proximity of the affecting sound : contact or distant;
• by the nature of the change by deafness/voice And hardness/softness;
• in the direction of influence – progressive(impact from left to right (®) and regressive(exposure to sounds from right to left (¬);
• in terms of completeness of comparison: full And partial.

The Russian language is characterized by contact, regressive assimilation. For example: fairy tale– [skask] – voiced [z], under the influence of the voiceless [k], was assimilated into the voiceless paired sound [s]. This is contact assimilation, partial regressive in deafness.

Whistling consonants before sibilants as a result complete assimilation turn into hissing: I'm driving .

D assimilation – dissimilarity of sounds. In Russian this process is rare. As a result of the process, sound changes its characteristics according to the method or place of formation: r ® x soft– [m "ahk"y], easy– [l "ohk"y]. Pairs of sounds or similar sounds that are identical in the method or place of formation are subject to dissimilation. Dissimilation may be contact And distant,progressive And regressive.

Distant progressive dissimilation occurred, for example, in the literary language in the word February from February, in common parlance kolidor from corridor. Replacing one of the two [p] with [l] is distant dissimilation. (Not to be confused with the pronunciation norm: th, hrs like [shn] – What[what] and - wow, -him like [ova], [iva]: blue– [s "in" ьвъ]! These alternations take place regularly, in the same positions, without exception, and have the character of a law.)

Contraction– coincidence in the articulation of two sounds in one. For example, urban® [g'artskaya ® g'artskaya], [ts] ® [ts].

When groups of consonants are contracted, sound loss may occur: Sun- [son]. Usually these are combinations [vstv], [ntsk], [stl], etc.

Changes based on the phenomena of assimilation and dissimilation:

Prolapse (miscarriages, diaeresis)– (from the Greek diaresis – gap) – omission of one of the sounds in a combination of three or four consonants. For example, giant– [g’igansk’iy].

Haplology– (from Greek gaplos – simple + logos – concept) omission of one or two identical adjacent syllables due to dissimilation. For example, mineralogy instead of mineralology, standard bearer, instead of standard bearer.

Metathesis– (from the Greek metathesis - rearrangement) rearrangement of sounds or syllables within a word on the basis of assimilation or dissimilation. For example, palm from dolon, plate from ticket.

Epenthesis- (from Greek epenthesis - insertion) insertion of sounds, For example, ndrav instead of disposition, scorpijon instead of scorpion V colloquial speech, sound [th] in a word coffee(from coffee), sound [v] in a word singer(from sang) in literary speech.

Substitution- (from Latin - substitution) the replacement of one sound with another, often when replacing sounds uncharacteristic of the language in borrowed words. For example, in the word William[в] instead of [w].

3. Historical alternations of sounds

Regular changes in sounds, not related to position in a word, but explained by the laws of the phonetic system that existed in the past, are called historical alternations. The main historical alternations associated with the processes of falling reduced, palatalization of consonants or their changes under the influence of softening [Ĵ]:

vowel alternation:

[ e] –[ i] –[ o] –[ a] – [Ø] // sound zero: died - die; pestilence - to kill - I will die; take – collect – collection – collect;

[e] – [Ø] sound zero: stump - stump; faithful - faithful; wind - wind;

[o] – [Ø] – sound zero: forehead - forehead; bottomless - bottom; lie - to lie;

[s] – [Ø] – zero sound: send –ambassador - to send.

Vowels can alternate with consonants or with vowels + consonant:

[i] – [th] – [her] – [oh]: drink - drink - drink - swill; beat - beat - beat - fight;

[s] – [oh] – [ov] – [av]: dig - swarm - ditch; swim – swimmer – swim; cover – cut – cover;

[y] – [ov] – [ev]: kuyu – forge; draw - draw; peck - peck;

[a] – [im] – [m]: reap – shake – press;

[a] – [in] – [n]: reap - reap - reap.

consonant alternation:

[g] – [f] – [z]: friend - be friends - friends; run - run; moisture – wet;

[k] – [h]: scream - shout; hand - manual; bake - bakes;

[x] – [w]: quiet - silence; dry – land; stuffiness - stuffy;

[z] – [z"] – [zh]: thunderstorm - threaten - threaten; carry - drive; smear - smear; climb - I get along;

[s] – [s"] – [w]: bring – carry – burden; scythe - mow - mow; ask - demand - request; high - height - higher;

[t] – [t"] – [h] – [w"]: light - shine - candle - lighting; return – return – return;

[d] – [f] – [zh]: gardens - planting - planting;

[n] – [n"]: change - change; torn - torn;

[l] – [l"]: business - efficient; prick – prickly;

[r] – [r"]: blow - to hit; heat - heat; steam - steam;

[b] – [b"] – [bl"]: rowing - rowing - rowing;

[p] – [p"] – [pl"]: pour out - rash - pour out;

[v] – [v"] – [vl"]: trapper - catching - catching;

[f] – [f"] – [fl"]: graph - graph - graph;

[sk] – [st] – [s"t"] – [w":]: shine - shine - sparkle - shines; start - let - lower;

[sk] – [w":]: crackle - crackle;

[st] – [w"]: whistle - whistle

4. Phonetic transcription

Phonetic transcription is the recording of spoken speech using special characters. There are several transcription systems that differ in the degree of accuracy in conveying the nuances of sound. You are offered the most common phonetic transcription, created on the basis of the Russian alphabet. Not all letters of the Russian alphabet are used in transcription. Phonetic transcription does not use letters e, e, yu, i. Letters ъ, ь are used in a different meaning. Some letters of the foreign alphabet are added - j , γ , as well as superscript and subscript characters: È .... Ç. Basic signs adopted in phonetic transcription:

– square brackets to highlight transcribed sound units;

/ – a sign above the letter to indicate emphasis;

’ – a sign to the right of the letter to indicate the softness of the sound;

L– a sign to indicate the sounds [a] or [o] in the first syllable before stress after hard consonants or at the beginning of a word not under stress: [сLды́], ;

ъ– a sign to indicate unstressed sounds [a], [o] after hard consonants in all unstressed syllables except the first syllable and the beginning of the word: gardener– [sudLvot], young– [мълЛд΄й], as well as the unstressed sound [e] after unsoftened [zh], [sh], [ts] in all unstressed positions, except for the first one before the stress: cement– [tsam’i e nt’i΄arv’t’].

b– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants, except for the first syllable before stress: hourly– [h’sLvoy], forester– [l’sLvot];

and uh– a sign to indicate vowels [a], [o], [e] after soft consonants in the first syllable before stress: forest– [l’i e snoy]; nickel– [p’i tak].

s uh – a sign to indicate a sound in place of the letter E in the first pre-stressed syllable after always hard consonants f, w, c: regret– [zhy e l’et΄t’], price– [tsy e na΄],

γ – letter to indicate the fricative consonant indicated by the letter G in words: yeah, lord;

È – a bow under the line between words indicates a combined pronunciation of a function and an independent word: in rows– [пъ È р’ и е dam];

j– a letter to indicate the sound [th] at the beginning of words e,yo,yu, I, as well as between two vowels and after hard or soft signs: spruce – , climb– [pLдjo΄м], his– [svj i e vo΄];

Ç – the bow above the combinations of consonants (dz, j) indicates their continuous pronunciation: [d Ç zhy΄nsy].

/ – mark of a beat pause when transcribing spoken speech: [s’i e rg’e΄ay ​​/ my friend//]

// – a sign of a phrasal pause when transcribing spoken speech:

[dom / and È s’t’e΄any pamLga΄jut //] .

Phonetic transcription conveys the exact pronunciation of words and is used in the study of dialects and dialects, when the peculiarities of the pronunciation of a word in a particular area are recorded, in the study of children's speech, as well as in mastering the correct literary pronunciation of words.

Literary pronunciation of words in the Russian language presupposes compliance with certain norms, which are reflected in the rules of transcription.

5. Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowels and consonants

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) vowel sounds:

1. The vowels O, A, E (in spelling E) in an unstressed position are subject to reduction (weakening) and are not pronounced clearly.

2. In all unstressed positions after hard consonants, except for the first unstressed syllable, A and O are written with the sign b: balalaika– [b llLlayk]; gardening .

The vowels I, Y, U do not change during pronunciation.

3. In the first pre-stressed syllable, O and A are pronounced as open A, in transcription they are conveyed by the sign - [вLда́]. This type of pronunciation is called let's say. Norm literary language- aka pronunciation.

4. The sign also reflects the pronunciation of the initial unstressed O and A: district– . If a word has a preposition, it is one thing in the flow of speech phonetic word and transcribed according to general rule: to the garden[in ъглр΄т];

5. After soft consonants in the first pre-stressed position, the sound A (letter Z) is pronounced as I and transcribed using the [and e] sign: watch[ch'i e sy].

6. The vowel E (in spelling E) in the first pre-stressed position is pronounced as I and transcribed using the sign [and e]: forest[l’i e snoy]. In other positions, except for the first pre-stressed syllable, E is pronounced unclearly and is transcribed after soft consonants using the sign [b]: forester– [l’sLvot], copse– [p'р' и е l'е΄сък].

7. The letters E, E, Yu, I are not used in transcription; in their place the sounds corresponding to the pronunciation (audible) are written: ball[m’ach’], ball[m'i e ch'a΄], apple , climb[pLd j o΄m], spacious[prolstornj jь].

8. After the hard consonants Ж, Ш, Ц in the first prestressed syllable, in place of the letter E in the transcription the sign [ы е] is written: want– [zhy e lat’], price– [tsi e na]. In other positions, unstressed E after hard ones is conveyed by the sign [ъ]: yellowish[yellow].

9. After Zh, Sh, C in the shock position instead of the position spelling rules And in the transcription the pronounced [s] is written: number– [cy΄fr], lived– [lived], sewed- [whispered].

Rules for transcribing (pronunciation) consonant sounds:

In the flow of speech, consonants are subject to mutual influence, as a result of which processes of assimilation, dissimilation, contraction, loss, etc. occur. Voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian are deafened. Accommodation processes of consonant sounds (for example, rounding of the sound [t o ] in a word here) are usually not reflected in the transcriptions we use.

Types of phonetic alternations. Phonetic alternations, in turn, are positional and combinatorial. Positional alternation is a phonetic alternation of sounds depending on their position (position) in relation to the beginning or end of a word or in relation to a stressed syllable. Combinatorial alternation of sounds reflects their combinatorial changes due to the influence of neighboring sounds.

Another classification is their division on positional exchange and positional change. The basic concept for phenomena of phonetic nature is position– phonetically determined place of sound in the flow of speech in relation to significant manifestations of living phonetic laws: in Russian, for example, for vowels – in relation to stress or hardness/softness of the preceding consonant (in Proto-Slavic – in relation to the subsequent jj, in English – closedness /openness of syllable); for consonants - in relation to the end of the word or to the quality of the neighboring consonant. The types of phonetic alternations differ by the degree of positional conditioning. Positional exchange- alternation, rigidly occurring in all cases without exception and significant for meaning differentiation (a native speaker distinguishes it in the flow of speech): “akanye” - non-distinction of phonemes A and O in unstressed syllables, their coincidence in /\ or in b. Positional change– acts only as a tendency (knows exceptions) and is not recognized by a native speaker due to the lack of a semantic distinguishing function: A in MOTHER and MEAT are phonetically different A ([[ayaÿ]]and [[dä]]), but we do not recognize this difference; soft pronunciation of consonants before E is almost mandatory, but unlike I, there are exceptions (TEMP, TENDENCE).

Historical (traditional) alternations are alternations of sounds representing different phonemes, so historical alternations are reflected in writing. Non-phonetic, non-positional (historical) alternations are associated with the expression of grammatical (friend-friends) and word-formation (friend) meanings: act as an additional means of inflection, (formation and word formation. The historical alternation of sounds accompanying the formation of derivative words or grammatical forms of words is also called morphological, since it is determined by the proximity of phonemes with certain suffixes or inflections: for example, before diminutive suffixes -k(a), -ok etc. back-linguals regularly alternate with hissing ones (hand-hand, friend-friend), and before the suffix -yva(~yva-) part of the verbs alternates root vowels <о-а>(work-work out). Types of historical alternations.

1) Actually historical, phonetic-historical– alternations reflecting traces of once active living phonetic processes (palatalization, fall of reduced ones, iotation, etc.);

2)Etymological– reflecting the semantic or stylistic differentiation that once occurred in the language: EQUAL (identical) // EVEN (smooth), SOUL // SOUL; complete agreement // partial agreement, PR/PRI.

3) Grammatical, differentiating– which also have at the synchronic level the function of differentiating grammatical phenomena: NEIGHBOR//NEIGHBORS (D//D’’) – the change from hard to soft contrasts the singular and plural(these cases do not include truly different indicators, for example, conjugations –I and E, USH and YASH, since here we have before us not an exchange at the level of sound, but an opposition of morphological forms (the same – ENGINEER Y//ENGINEER A)).It is clear that all these phenomena, which have different natures, are only conditionally grouped as “historical” - therefore the term “non-phonetic” would be more accurate.

LECTURE 8. Positional change and positional changes of vowels and consonants. Historical alternations of vowels and consonants

Phonetic processes in the vowel area .

Positional exchange. The main cases of positional exchange of vowels include cases of qualitative reduction of the vowel sounds A, O, E in unstressed positions. High-quality reduction– this is a weakening of sound, which is accompanied by a change in acoustic-articulatory characteristics (the sound changes its DP). There are positions: percussion– the sound remains unchanged (strong position); first pre-shock– first degree of reduction; second(all other unstressed positions) – the second degree of reduction (weak first and second positions). The sounds I, U, Y do not undergo qualitative changes, they change only quantitatively. Qualitative reduction of these sounds has different results depending on whether they appear after a soft or hard consonant. See table.

Let's not forget about the phenomenon of the absolute beginning of a word, where A and O in both the first and second position will be the same /\ (instead of /\ for the first and the expected b for the second position: [] ORANGE. E, respectively, in both the first and second position will be (instead of in the first and Kommersant in the second): ETAZHERKA [[t/\zh''erk]].

*Sometimes after hard hissing Ж, Ш, Ц in the first position A instead of the expected /\ sounds like E: you just need to remember such words - JACKET, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, SORRY, RYE, JASMINE, HORSES, TWENTY, THIRTY. But this is not for me, but for the next topic (changes), and also for spelling.

Positional changes. Positional changes include phenomena accommodation vowels before soft and after soft consonants. Accommodation is the process of mutual adaptation of sounds of different nature (vowel to consonant or vice versa). After a soft consonant, a non-front vowel moves forward and upward in formation at the beginning of pronunciation (progressive accommodation), before a soft one - at the end (regressive accommodation), between a soft one - throughout utterances (progressive-regressive accommodation).

For the sounds O, A, E - only under stress - all 4 cases are possible; for sounds U - both stressed and not, all 4 cases; for ы both under stress and without stress, only 2 cases are possible ы and ыяÿ, for And a dot is not placed in front, since it is not used after a hard word - 2 cases And иыь. Sometimes instead of Yo (between soft ones) they designate kê – SING [[p’’kêt’’]]. Y and JJ are considered soft.

Another case of positional changes is the progressive accommodation of the initial I in Y, when a consonant prefix is ​​added to the root: GAME - PLAY UP (this applies to changes, since it knows exceptions - PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE is also possible to pronounce I).

Non-phonetic processes in the vowel area.

at the root - BIR//BER, GOR//GAR, non-accord//full consonance, E//O, A//Z, U//YU at the beginning of the word, O//E type VESNY//SPRING; in the prefix – PRE//PRI, NOT//NI, in the suffix – EK//IK, ETs//ITs, OVA//EVA//YVA//IVA, IN//EN//AN, in adjectives; at the end - OV//EV, IY//EYE, OH//EYE, OM//EM, ІY//Ой//Ий

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent vowels”): in the root – DAY//DAY, WINDOW//WINDOWS, COLLECT//TAKE, WHO//WHOM, WHAT//WHAT, in the prefix – THROUGH//THROUGH, PRE//PERE, WITH//CO, VZ//WHOZ , IN//IN, OVER//NADO, FROM//OTO, KOY//KOE, in the suffix – PEAS//PEAS, RED//RED, BIRD//BIRD, TI//TH of the verb, SK//ESK, СН//ЭСН in adjectives, in the ending – ОY//ОУ, in the postfix – СЯ//Сь

The alternation RAZ//ROZ refers to phonetic types of writing and is one of the rare cases of reflection in writing not of historical, but of phonetic alternation within one phoneme - the strong position O (under the stress, which naturally sounds in the first and second positions, respectively, as /\ and Kommersant, which is reflected in the letter as A.

Phonetic processes in the area of ​​consonants.

Positional exchange. The positional exchange of consonants includes diverse processes, united by a common feature - they know no exceptions. 1) Positional deafening of noisy voiced sounds at the end of a word - RODA-ROD [[T]]; 2) Regressive assimilation in terms of voicing - noisy deaf people are voiced before voiced ones MOWING-MOWING [[Z]] (assimilation refers to the processes of assimilation of homogeneous sounds - the influence of vowels on vowels, consonants on consonants, in contrast to accommodation); regressive assimilation by deafness - noisy voiced ones are deafened in front of noisy voiced ones - BOAT[[T]]. The process does not concern sonorants - neither the sonorants themselves, nor the noisy ones before the sonorants. The double role of the B sound is interesting (it is no coincidence that some also consider it sonorant). In front of it, noisy ones behave not as in front of a voiced one, but as in front of a sonorant one - they do not become voiced (RESPECT: T does not turn into D); and he himself behaves like a noisy voiced person - in front of a deaf person and at the end of the word he is deafened - STORE [[F]]; 3) Regressive assimilation by softness - will be exchanged only for the anterior lingual teeth D, T, S, Z, N before any of them soft: NEWS [[S’’T’’]]; 4) Complete (such assimilation in which the sound changes not just one DP, but completely its entire characteristic) regressive assimilation of Z, S before hissing Sh, F, CH,SH, C – SEW [[SHH]], HAPPINESS [[SH’’SH’’]]; T and D before CH – REPORT [[CH’’CH’’]]; T+S= C – FIGHT [[CC]]; T and D before C (FATHER [[TTS]]; S and Z before SH (SPLITTLE [[Ш''Ш'']]; 5) Dieresis (loss of sound on a dissimilative basis) – KNOWN, HOLIDAY; ​​6) Dissimilation ( reverse assimilation - dissimilarity of sounds) G before K – SOFT [[ХК]]; 7) Accommodation by softness in front of I, b, (except C, W, F, H) – HAND//HANDS [[K]]//[[K’’]]; 8) Vocalization of the phoneme JJ: as a consonant sound jj appears only at the beginning of a stressed syllable (YUG), and in other positions it acts as a non-syllabic sound - a vowel sound.

Note: B at the end of participial and adverbial suffixes does not turn into F; there it is F, because in a strong position like B it never sounds (there is no alternation). The same thing - we must distinguish between, say, the loss of sound in the synchrony SUN and in the diachrony FEELING, where at the modern level there is no loss, because there is no alternation with its full version.

Positional changes. Processes that occur as a trend, but have exceptions. 1) Assimilation in softness of labial and dental before labial and R before labial (Z''BELIEV, LYUB''VI). The old norm required exactly this pronunciation, but now, apparently under the influence of spelling, this is not relevant. 2) Assimilation by softness before jj: most often softened, but, again under the influence of spelling, before the dividing b, denoting jj, at the junction of the prefix and the root - the hard consonant EAT [[С]] sounds; 3) Irregular dissimilation of H before T or N: WHAT, OF COURSE [[SHT]][[SHN]](does not always happen - for example SOMETHING - already only [[TH]]); 4) Accommodation by the softness of hard words before E - now, in many foreign words, it is also possible to pronounce a hard consonant before E: REVENGE [[M’’]], but TEMP [[T]]. 5) Deafening of the sonor in the position at the end of the word after the hard PETER. 6) Sonoran vocalization – the acquisition of a syllabic character by a sonorant consonant in a cluster of consonants – KORAB[[ъ]]Л, TEMB[[ъ]]Р. All of these processes are at the same time orthoepic, because fluctuations in regular pronunciation are the reason for orthoepic variation.

Non-phonetic processes in the area of ​​consonants.

1) Historical alternations of phonemes: traces of palatalization (first, second, third) HAND//HANDLE; traces of the influence of iota LIGHT//CANDLE; traces of simplification of consonant groups BEREGU//BERECH; stun at the end of a word (unchecked BY DOING [[F]]); historical exchange of G for V in the endings of adjectives – RED [[V]]; alternation of suffixes CHIC//SCHIK; non-phonetic (phonemic) softness - WILL // BE, ZARYA // RADIANT (here it is not a softening, because in the word ZARYA before A should not be softened (non-anterior) - there is no positional conditionality).

2) Historical alternations of phonemes with zero sound (“fluent consonants): traces of L-epentheticum – EARTHLY//EARTH [[–]]//[[L]]; historical diaeresis (unverifiable) FEELING, LADDER; adjective suffixes SK//K; endings OV(EV)//– (GRAM//GRAMS).

Note. The change of Z//S in prefixes like IZ, WHO, RAZ, although reflected in the writing, is in fact not a historical, but a living, phonetic process of assimilation in terms of voiced-voicelessness: it’s just that phonetic, not phonemic, spelling is implemented here.

LECTURE 9. Segmental and supersegmental units. Stress and its types

Linear units are also called segmental, since they are obtained as a result of segmentation against the background of comparison with other similar units as minimal independent fragments. But as a result of the division of the sound flow, other, no longer limiting units are distinguished, which are called supersegmental. Supersegmental are units that do not have an independent semantic character, but simply organize the speech flow due to the characteristics of the matter of sound and our organs of speech and senses. If supersegmental units are not related to the expression of meaning, they still have their own articulatory-acoustic specificity. The articulatory-acoustic characteristics of supersegmental units are called PROSODY.

PROSODY is a set of phonetic features such as tone, volume, tempo, and general timbre coloring of speech. Initially, the term “prosody” (Greek prosodia – stress, melody) was applied to poetry and singing and meant a certain rhythmic and melodic scheme superimposed on a chain of sounds. The understanding of prosody in linguistics is similar to that accepted in the theory of verse in the sense that prosodic features relate not to segments (sounds, phonemes), but to the so-called supra- (i.e. supra-) segmental components of speech, longer in duration than a separate segment - to a syllable, word, syntagma (intonation-semantic unity, usually consisting of several words) and sentence. Accordingly, prosodic features are characterized by duration and impreciseness of their implementation.

The section of phonetics that studies these characteristics is called accordingly. Since their characteristics come down to two types of phenomena – STRESS and INTONATION, this section is divided into two subsections: ACCENTOLOGY and INTONOLOGY.

ACCENTOLOGY(Latin akcentus “emphasis” + Greek logos “word, teaching”). 1. System of accents of the language. 2. The doctrine of accentual (prosodic) means of language. Aspects of accentology: descriptive, comparative-historical, theoretical. Descriptive accentology studies the phonetic, phonological, and grammatical properties of prosodic means. Comparative-historical accentology studies historical changes in accent systems, their external and internal reconstruction. Theoretical accentology describes the systemic relationships of prosodic means, the role of significant units in the structure, and linguistic functions.

The central concept of accentology is emphasis.STRESS in a broad sense –– This is any emphasis (emphasis) in the flow of sounding speech of one or another part of it (sound - as part of a syllable, syllable - as part of a word, word - as part of a speech tact, syntagm; syntagm as part of a phrase) using phonetic means. STRESS in the narrow sense – only verbal stress

TYPES OF STRESS:

According to the acoustic-articulatory characteristics, stress differs between monotonic (expiratory) and polytonic (musical, melodic, tonic, tonal). They also talk about the quantitative type of stress.

Russian-type stress was traditionally considered dynamic, or expiratory. It was assumed that increased respiratory and articulatory effort on stressed vowels is reflected in their increased acoustic intensity.

Another way of organizing the relationship between stressed and unstressed syllables is possible: the vowel of a stressed syllable lengthens, while the unstressed ones retain a neutral duration (the quality of the vowels remains almost unchanged). These are languages ​​with quantitative (quantitative) stress. Modern Greek is usually cited as an example of this type of stress. In it, unstressed sounds are not subject to reduction and differ from stressed sounds only in the absence of an increment in duration. In ancient times, many languages ​​had such an accent.

Traditionally, there is another type of stress – tonal. In Europe, it is represented in the South Slavic (Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and Scandinavian (Swedish and Norwegian) languages. This type of stress is associated with a special interaction between verbal and phrasal prosody. In most languages ​​of the world, the beginning of the tonal movement that implements phrasal accent is combined with the beginning of the stressed syllable. However, it is also possible for two landmarks to appear to place the tonal emphasis. For example, in the Serbo-Croatian language there was a shift of stress by one syllable to the left (the so-called “retraction”), and in the place of stress, words with the former stress on the second syllable coincided with those that had the original initial stress; the old orientation of the tonal accent of the phrase was preserved. Therefore, in words where the stress has not shifted, the falling tone of the statement falls on the stressed vowel, and where it has shifted, the fall in tone falls on the overstressed syllable, while the fall in tone is often preceded by its rise. As a result, on the initial stressed syllable the falling and rising tones are opposed. For example, words glory, power in Serbo-Croatian have a falling accent, and words leg, needle–– ascending.

The object of emphasis is emphasized syllabic, verbal, syntagmatic (beat), phrasal.

Accent syllabic–– highlighting a specific sound within a syllable. Syllable stress is a change in the sound strength or tone of a syllabic sound. There are usually five types of syllable stress: smooth, ascending, descending, ascending-descending, descending-ascending. With rising stress, the syllable is characterized by rising intonation. With a descending stress, the stressed syllable is characterized by a descending intonation.

Accent verbal–– highlighting one syllable in a word using phonetic means, serving for phonetic unification. this word.

Russian verbal stress has qualitative and quantitative characteristics. According to the traditional point of view, Russian verbal stress is dynamic (force), expiratory, expiratory, i.e. the stressed vowel is the strongest and loudest in the word. However, experimental phonetic studies indicate that the loudness (“strength”) of a vowel depends both on the quality of the vowel ([a] is the loudest, \у], [and], [ы]- the quietest), and on the position of the vowel in the word: the closer to the beginning of the word the vowel is, the greater its volume, for example, in the word gardens an unstressed vowel is stronger than a stressed vowel. Therefore, an essential characteristic word stress is its duration: a stressed vowel differs in longer duration from an unstressed one. In addition, a stressed syllable is distinguished by greater clarity: under stress, sounds are pronounced that are impossible in an unstressed position.

The languages ​​of the world differ both in the rhythmic patterns allowed in words and in the functions performed by stress in them. An example of a language with an exceptional variety of accentual (i.e., stressed) possibilities is Russian. Since the stress can fall on any syllable of a word, it can perform a semantic distinguishing function, contrasting pairs like: saw - pli, zmok - castle, etc.

In many languages, stress is fixed, occupying a permanent place in the word. Fixed stress is oriented toward extreme positions in a word—either its beginning or its end. Thus, Czech and Hungarian languages ​​have stress on the first syllable, Polish on the penultimate, and most Turkic languages ​​on the last. Languages ​​have a similar rhythmic organization, in which stress can occupy one of two positions, oriented to the edge of the word, and its placement depends on the so-called distribution of “light” and “heavy” syllables. “Light” are syllables that end in a short vowel, and “heavy” are syllables that have either a long vowel or a vowel covered by a final consonant. Thus, in Latin and Arabic, the stress in non-monosyllabic words falls on the penultimate syllable if it is “heavy”, otherwise it shifts to the previous syllable.

Russian stress is not only variable, but also mobile: it can shift when the grammatical form of the word changes (vod - vdu). English has more limited accent capabilities. As in Russian, the stress in it is varied, which implies the possibility of contrasting pairs like: ўsubject “subject” –– subўject “to subjugate”, ўdesert “desert” –– deўsert “to desert”; English stress can also change during suffixal word formation: ўsensitive –– sensitivity. However, inflectional possibilities in English are small, and there is no change in stress during inflection.

Languages ​​also show significant differences in the distribution of gradations of force in the unstressed part of a word. In some languages, all unstressed syllables are equally opposed to the stressed syllable, although marginal syllables may have additional strengthening or weakening. In other languages, the principle of "dipodia" applies: stronger and weaker syllables follow one another, with a gradual weakening of strength as they move away from the apex. This is the situation in Finnish and Estonian: the main stress in them falls on the first syllable, the secondary stress on the third, and the tertiary stress on the fifth. The situation in the Russian language is unusual: the pre-stressed syllable here is inferior in strength to the stressed syllable, but exceeds the others: potakla (here means reduced a).

There is another possibility of varying the prosodic scheme of a word with “dynamic” stress: different phonetic parameters can enhance different positions in this scheme. Thus, in Turkic languages, the main accentual vertex of a word is the final syllable, on which the intonation accent is placed. However, there is also a center of collateral reinforcement - the initial syllable, which has a loudness accent.

Languages ​​without accent (accent). In many languages ​​outside of Europe, there is no clearly defined accentual vertex of the word, and scientists have difficulty determining the place of stress. A typical example is Georgian, regarding the rhythmic organization of which there is no single point of view. There is an opinion that the assumption that the rhythmic combination of the syllables of a word is mandatory is false (V.B. Kasevich et al., S.V. Kodzasov). In particular, the history of the Russian language speaks in its favor. In Old Russian, a significant number of forms of full-valued words were the so-called “enclinomen” (V.A. Dybo, A.A. Zaliznyak). These words did not have their own stress and were added in the form of enclitics to the preceding full-stressed words.

Accent functions.Word-forming function: phonetic combination of a word. Russian words have only one main (acute) stress, but complex words can have, in addition to the main one, a secondary, side (gravity) stress: cf. rural And agricultural. The recognition function of word stress is also associated with the word-forming function, which allows you to recognize the word, since the word is characterized by non-two-stress.

One of the most important functions of word stress is differentiating function: stress serves as a means of distinguishing words (flour And flour, castle And lock) and their different meanings (chaos And chaos), word forms (hands And hands), as well as stylistic variations of the word (you call and decomposition you call, it's cold and dial. cold, alcohol and prof. alcohol,

The movable stress is not fixed on a separate syllable or morpheme and can be inflectional And word-formation. Mobile inflectional stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another during inflection (hand-hands). Mobile word-formation stress is capable of moving from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another during word formation (horse-horse, hand – pen). Along with the movable stress, the Russian language also presents a fixed stress: shoe, shoes.

Not every vocabulary word has its own word stress. Functional words receive stress in the flow of speech only in exceptional cases, but usually they form clitics. In a statement, as a rule, there are fewer stresses than words, due to the formation of phonetic words, in which function and independent words are combined with one stress.

The accent is timed ( syntagmatic) – highlighting one of the words in a speech beat (syntagma) by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one syntagma. Syntagmatic stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in a speech bar: In the original autumn there is / a short, / but wonderful time //.

The speech beat usually coincides with the respiratory group, i.e. a segment of speech pronounced with one blast of exhaled air, without pauses. The integrity of a speech beat as a rhythmic unit is created by its intonation design. The intonation center is concentrated on the stressed syllable of a word as part of a speech beat - - bar accent: On dry aspen / hoodie/... Each speech beat is formed by one of the intonation structures. Speech tact is sometimes called syntagma.

The main means of dividing into syntagms is a pause, which usually appears in combination with the melody of speech, the intensity and tempo of speech and can be replaced by sudden changes in the meanings of these prosodic features. One of the words of the syntagma (usually the last) is characterized by the strongest stress (With logical stress, the main stress can fall on any word of the syntagma).

A phrase usually stands out and contains several speech beats, but the boundaries of the phrase and the beat may coincide: Night. // Street. // Flashlight. // Pharmacy //(Block). The selection of speech beats can be characterized by variability: cf. Field behind the ravine And Field/behind the ravine.

Phrase stress–– highlighting one of the words in a phrase by increasing verbal stress, combining different words into one phrase. Phrasal stress usually falls on the stressed vowel of the last word in the final speech beat (syntagm): There is an initial autumn / short, / butmarvelousit's time //.

Within a bar (less often a phrase), two types of bar (phrase) stress are distinguished, depending on the functions – logical And emphatic.

Stress logical (semantic)–– stress, which consists of highlighting a certain part of a sentence (usually a word), on which the speakers’ main attention is focused. Logical stress is observed in cases where the content of speech requires special emphasis on certain parts of the statement. With the help of logical stress, one or another word is usually highlighted in a sentence, important from the logical, semantic side, on which all attention should be concentrated

Positional trading is trend trading on long time frames. Position trading is usually carried out on the basis of. This method of trading is used on almost all exchanges. Traders who use this style of trading maintain long time Both sell and buy transactions are open.

Sell ​​transactions make a profit when the price of an asset depreciates, which usually happens during times of economic/financial turmoil. This method of earning money brought many speculators considerable profits in 2008, when there was a sharp drop in prices in many markets.

Features of position trading

The essence of position trading is to open trades in order to obtain maximum income from a trend. Position traders do not pay attention to minor price fluctuations and noise in the market. They try to find a major trend that may last for more than a few months. This method of trading has its advantages. The main one is that to trade in this way, a trader does not need to constantly be in front of a computer monitor. A trader just needs to carry out the analysis correctly, make a forecast for the future and open trades. Next, the trader simply watches the transactions and adjusts them if necessary. At the same time, the trader does not pay attention to market noise and minor pullbacks, so there is no need to constantly monitor orders.

How to identify places to enter the market

Identifying suitable places to enter the market in positional trading is carried out using several methods. Some speculators are looking for assets with good trend potential, but which are still fluctuating within a certain range. Sometimes you can open trades on assets that have already started a trend. The second case is more convenient for traders, since the trend has already appeared and its direction is known. All a trader needs to do is simply open an order in the direction of the trend. In this case, there is no need to spend special effort and time on conducting analysis and making a forecast. the main objective position trader - identify an emerging trend and open an order in accordance with its direction.

Risks of position trading

Position trading, like any other type of trading in the foreign exchange market, is subject to certain risks. Among the main risks associated with this trading method, it is worth noting the danger of a trend change before the created orders are closed. Under unfavorable circumstances, even weak corrections can cause a trend change.

Position trading also has some limitations due to the fact that traders invest existing capital for a fairly long period of time. For this reason, before creating an order, a trader must plan his investment in such a way as to prevent exit from the position due to a drawdown of the deposit.

Advantages of position trading

Among the many advantages of position trading, the following deserve special attention:

1. This method of trading allows you to determine the true situation on the market, which, in turn, helps to identify the true direction of movement of the price level. Due to the fact that the trader is not distracted by small price fluctuations, he makes significantly fewer mistakes.
2. Ability to apply fundamental analysis. Having familiarized himself with the situation in the economy of a particular state, he will be able to quite accurately predict changes in the quotations of the national currency.
3. Position trading involves more measured and calm trading, since there is no need to quickly make decisions. After opening orders, the trader only needs to monitor the situation on the market from time to time.

Is it worth using positional trading?

In order to receive a good income when conducting positional trading, you need to have a certain amount of money. With a small initial capital, a trader has no right to count on serious income. And the money management recommendations here are somewhat different. The stop loss, due to work on older time periods, is set a little further. Therefore, if a trader violates money management recommendations and invests most initial capital into the position, then Stop-Loss will not save him from losses if the price level begins to move in a direction unfavorable for the trader. And this can happen at any moment. The size of the correction or sideways movement can be 500 points on pairs with high volatility. It is recommended to start with a small deposit at first so that the trader can understand whether he can trade in such conditions. Not every trader will be able to keep an order open for several months, let alone years. While testing, you can continue to day trade and occasionally test your position trading trades. This method will help the trader understand for himself whether it is suitable for him position trading.

If you cannot boast of having a large amount of free Money, then position trading most likely will not suit you, since with its help it is impossible to quickly disperse a small deposit.

Position trading is the best choice for patient traders who are not chasing short-term income and can afford to invest capital in trading for a relatively long period.

A correct understanding of position trading will allow you to add a powerful strategy to your arsenal for working in any financial markets.

The content of the article:

Before you start trading, you should understand the basic key concepts: what is position trading, how it differs from swing trading and what its strategy is.

What is position trading in simple words and with examples

Position trading– this is working on a trend on a long-term basis, on charts covering large time scales. To implement this, fundamental and technical analysis is often used. Position trading is suitable for all types of markets: stocks, commodities, Forex.

Here's how Wikipedia described position trading:

Position trader (short-term) - makes transactions with a duration of several days, closes all positions before periods of decreased liquidity (holidays, summer vacations, etc.)

Positional trading has existed since the advent of the first speculators, when charts with short time intervals were not available to people, and quotes were updated only a few times a day manually on the board in brokerage offices. In such conditions, it was more profitable to trade in the long term and hold the position.

Today, positional strategy is used in the stock market and Forex, while positional traders are often identified with investors, but this is not entirely true. It is necessary to understand the difference between this style and others:

Thus, position trading is an independent style, significantly different from others. Market participants can use this approach to hold short- and long-term positions. Its advantages:

1. Does not take into account small price changes, that is, does not require constant monitoring of the situation;
2. There is no need to be near the computer all the time. In positional strategy, the most important thing is a deep and thorough analysis, on the basis of which further decisions are made;
3. An open position simply needs to be monitored if there is a situation that could change the position or price.

Position trading strategy on the real market

Position trading strategy is an analysis of daily, weekly and monthly timeframes; holding an open position for at least several days to a month.

Position trading in simple words– this is a meaningful and balanced entry into a transaction, based on maintaining a position in a trend.

Each strategy implies the presence of certain basic rules, positional trading is characterized by the following:

• The signal to enter a position is the beginning of a trend on a large timeframe (with a period of 1 day or 1 week);
• Exit from a transaction is carried out only if there are sufficient grounds for the end of the trend.

The simplest idea and interpretation of such a strategy is the phrase “ buy and hold”, often applicable to long-term investors in blue chip stocks.

Let's look at a small example of positional stock trading retail network"Magnet".

As you can see, the price has been in a strong uptrend for several years, which would be a good opportunity to hold the position for a long time. The technical signal for entering a position is the exit from consolidation at the end of 2012. Until the beginning of 2014, the price was steadily growing, reaching new highs. Only in March does a serious price drawdown appear, which breaks through the trend line and strong support levels. At this point, most position traders exit their trades as there is a clear sign that the trend is ending.

The result of the transaction could be a 120% increase; if trading is carried out with a leverage of 1:20, then it was possible to increase the capital by more than 40 times, with just one transaction.

In respect of technical tools Positional trading involves the use of:

• trend channels;
• support and resistance levels;
• moving averages, especially those with a 200-day period.

The main task is to identify a strong global movement, so analysis of news and fundamental background is used. However, news does not have a decisive meaning in position trading, but only serves as confirmation of technical signals.

Poll: What type of trading do you prefer?

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Difference from investing

Positional trading refers to holding a transaction for a relatively long time in the direction of the global trend.

It is a mistake to believe that position trading is similar to investing in the popular sense. Let's look at their main differences:

• trading as the main source implies income from the profitable resale of an asset (stocks, futures, currency), and investing gives no less importance to passive income (dividends, monthly payments);
• investors rely on fundamental analysis of the asset (company performance indicators, business growth prospects), and the trader is more focused on charts, using economic indicators only for confirmation;
• Returns are often calculated at the end of the year, and a successful investor can wait for the final results for decades.

The only similarity between a position trader and an investor is the long-term holding of an asset and nothing more. Thus, each market participant needs to decide who he really is - an investor or a speculator.

Differences between position trading and swing trading

Another popular strategy is this, which differs from positional trading, if not radically, then quite significantly. The swing focuses on average time intervals and traders receive most of their income from entering the market, based entirely on changes in the exchange rate, which will lead to a change in the value of the open position. For analysis, not a fundamental, but only a technical approach is used.

Position traders, in turn, work over large periods of time. They do not dwell on small price fluctuations, but study the long-term perspective of the development of the economic situation. The strategy is drawn up taking into account the changing trend financial situation for days, weeks and even months.

This is the biggest difference between position trading and swing trading. The former take into account fundamental components in their decisions, such as long-term forecasts, political and economic decisions of the government, financial models, etc. And the latter open transactions, looking at the short-term perspective of price fluctuations of the selected currency.

Position trading, unlike other business strategies, is most similar to investing, which means it gives a full range of financial instruments for transactions with shares. The main goal of such trading is to hold the stock for as long as possible while it makes a profit. This period can last from several days to months. Here the main task is a careful study of a certain sector of the economy and its general state at the time of opening a position, as well as forecasting the situation for the future in order to avoid risks. Useful assistant tools:

• Indicators;
• Trend lines;
• Long-term charts with non-technical information;
• Short-term charts with monthly and weekly changes;
• Fundamental analytics.

So, the whole strategy consists of three main steps:

1. Analysis of the economic sector and the position of the selected group of shares;
2. Choosing the most profitable moment to open a position;
3. Holding a stock for the longest period of time, and closing it if the economic situation suddenly changes.

You need to choose a positional trading strategy only for those assets for which you can conduct fundamental analysis and technical analytics, give the most accurate forecasts and be confident that the price trend will continue for a long period (at least a week).

Positional trading on Forex

Most Forex participants use positional trading as the main approach to making money. This is due to the fact that this particular method in the Forex market has the following advantages:

• Low commission costs;
• More time to make the right decision;
• There is no need for constant analysis and daily monitoring of the media and for adjusting positions.

As in stock trading, a trader must have a reserve of capital that can cover possible losses. When choosing a currency pair, one strong and one weak currency are accepted. Many participants make the mistake of analyzing only one currency and neglecting the analytics for the second.

Positional trading on the stock exchange has several basic principles, adhering to which you can ensure a 90% probability of successful trading:

1. Analysis of structure and market restrictions;
2. Determination of monthly trend reversals;
3. A calm approach to business without unnecessary risks and excessive greed;
4. Confidence in own decisions taken into account and , news statements, forecasts and analysts' comments;
5. Cool study of the media;
6. Entering a transaction with a size of assets that can be at least 5% at risk of loss.

Advantages and disadvantages

Any trading style has its advantages and disadvantages. In scalping, this means a long stay at the computer and strong nervous tension, but high level potential profit. The advantages of position trading include the following aspects:

• a relatively high percentage of profitable trades, since long-term trends are much more common on large time intervals and it is difficult to manipulate the market (put out stop orders);
• no need for a long stay at the monitor - the position can be monitored once a day or even a week;
• the possibility of a calm and long-term analysis (you can think about it for several days before entering);
• lower risk of psychological breakdown due to less frequent monitoring of the schedule;
• Huge profit potential with gradual increase and retention of a position.

The list is not exhaustive; the most significant advantages of the positional style are presented here. Let's move on to the disadvantages:

• long waits for results that can only really be measured months or years later;
• high responsibility for each forecast and analysis, since it can take many days and weeks in holding the wrong position;
• slow progress in trading (it’s good to hold positions if the trader already has experience, but you won’t be able to gain it quickly by opening trades once a year);
• the need for significant capital investments (you can only get significant income from positional trading if you have a decent amount of money in your account).

As a result, holding a position in certain cases is a significant advantage for an experienced trader, but disastrous for novice speculators.

Conclusion

So what is position trading - investing or trading?

Still, positional trading, in simple words, is not an investment, but trading, since the investor only hopes for growth, believes in the company, and he may not analyze the market, but influence the company itself. A position trader can trade for lower prices and in different markets.

Position trading is significantly different from day trading, scalping or swing in that it is aimed at holding a position throughout the entire trend, and not a specific part of it (fluctuations).

This approach is well suited for experienced traders with significant capital investments, and less so for beginners with a small deposit.

In the system of consonant phonemes, correlative rows of phonemes are distinguished, paired by:

v Deafness - voicedness.

v Hardness - softness.

Therefore, Russian consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to the characteristics deafness/voice And hardness/softness.

Not all consonant phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness - voicedness. For example, phonemes can be represented by one sound<б>And<п>in the position of the end of the word: oak /dup/, stupid /stupid/ or phonemes<в>And<ф>: moat /roof/, closet /cabinet/. But cannot be represented by the sound /p/, for example, no other phoneme except<р>, she doesn't have a partner. This means that only paired phonemes can be neutralized on the basis of deafness-voiceness. Paired phonemes according to deafness and voicedness are as follows:<б п б’ п’ в ф в’ ф’ г к д т д’ т’ ж ж’ ш ш’ з с з’ с’ >. Such consonant phonemes cannot be neutralized by voiceness-voicelessness<м м’ н н’ л л’ р р’ j ц ч х>- these phonemes do not have a pair.

Paired phonemes, neutralized in weak positions, can be represented by a voiceless or voiced sound. Neutralization occurs in the following positions:

Weak positions according to deafness - voicedness:

1. at the end of a word. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: genus/mouth/ and mouth/mouth/, stupid/stupid/ and lips/gup/.

2. before voiceless noisy consonants. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiceless consonants: sleep/SP/at and from the desk/ISP/arts.

3. before voiced noisy ones. Voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes are realized in voiced consonants: from the bathhouse/IZB/ and with sauna/ZB/.

There is no neutralization for deafness - voicedness, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme, in the following positions:

Strong positions on deafness - voicedness:

1. Position before a vowel.

2. Position before a sonorant consonant.

3. Position before [in] and [in’].

Unpaired phonemes<ч>, <ц>, <х>, , <м>, <н>, <л>, <р>, <м’>, <н’>, <р’>, <л’>do not participate in neutralization, but each of them is represented by variations, both voiceless and voiced:

<ц>

Consonant phonemes may not differ on the basis of hardness or softness. Consonant phonemes paired in hardness and softness are neutralized in the following positions:

Weak positions in terms of hardness and softness:

1. Dental before soft dental (except /l/). Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

2. Before /sh’/, /ch’/ are neutralized<н>, <н’>. The soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft /n’/.

3. Dental before soft labial. Soft and hard phonemes are realized in soft dental ones.

There is no hardness-softness neutralization, which means sound is the main representative of the phoneme in the following positions:

Strong positions on hardness - softness:

1. at the end of a word.

2. before a vowel.

3. before the back lingual consonant.

Hard and soft phonemes are not distinguished in the following positions:

Unpaired phonemes by hardness - softness:

<к>, <г>, <х>, <ц>, <ч>, ,<л>, <л’>- these phonemes do not participate in neutralization by hardness - softness.

Consonant phonemes can be neutralized according to one more feature - the place of formation. Phonemes<с с’з з’ т т ’д д’ ц >are realized in dental noisy sounds / s’z z’ t t ’d d’ ts/. Phonemes<ш ш’ ж ж’ ч’>are realized in anteropalatal noisy / w w’ w w’ h’/. In the position in front of the anteropalatal noisy ones, the dental ones change to anteropalatal: sew/sew/, squeeze /burn/.

Questions and assignments.

1. What is neutralization?

2. Fill out the table:

Positions: at the end of a word, position before a vowel, position before a sonorant consonant, before a velar consonant, position before [в] and [в’].

3. Name unpaired phonemes based on deafness/voice, hardness/softness.

4. Determine the composition of phonemes in the following words:

house, family, mouth, with the wind, without the wind, out of trouble, out of the pond, movie.

5. Determine the sound and phonemic composition of the following words:

With Shura, with Chuk, with Sasha, with Shchukar, with Zina, with Anya.