What are the benefits of mineral water? Fertilizers: classification, types, application How to take water from mineral springs

Mineral waters have a very wide application. They are used for evaporation of valuable components, and as refreshing, thirst-quenching table drinks, and at resorts for drinking treatment, baths, swimming in medicinal pools, all kinds of showers, as well as for inhalation and gargling. In non-resort settings, they use bottled water.

The healing effect of mineral water on the human body and its healing properties have been known to people since ancient times. Medicinal water treatments, according to the written monuments that have reached us, were widely used in medicine in Ancient Greece, Rome, India, Egypt, Peru, and Georgia. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) tried to explain the effect of mineral waters on the human body. The action of healing agents was also of interest to the brilliant scientist of the Middle Ages, Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna). However, at that time to fully appreciate healing properties People could not drink mineral waters, and the clergy cleverly took advantage of this, attributing their properties to divine power.

Currently, medicinal underground waters are used extremely widely. In the Caucasus, Central Asia, Kazakhstan and other regions, glorified healing springs have been known for a long time. The first health resort in Russia was opened on the orders of Peter I in 1718 at the “marcial” (ferruginous) springs in Karelia. The first studies of the country's mineral waters are associated with the name of the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who identified “medicinal” waters and “healing” springs. Already in the second half of the 18th century, the “geography” of medicinal waters in Russia was created.

On the territory of the former USSR there are more than 7.5 thousand mineral springs, about 500 balneological resorts. They are very diverse in the material and gas composition of waters, and in the nature of their impact on the human body. On the territory of Russia and former countries In the CIS there are types of medicinal waters known all over the world. Mineral carbonic waters of Kislovodsk, Essentuki, Zheleznovodsk, Borjomi, Arzni, hydrogen sulfide waters - Sochi - Matsesta, Ust-Kachinsk (Perm region), Talgi (Dagestan), radon waters of Pyatigorsk, Tskhaltubo, ferruginous waters - Marcial, Polyustrovsky, Truskovets and many others enjoy worldwide fame .

Medicinal mineral water depending on their specificity, they have a complex effect on the human body - thermal (temperature), chemical, therapeutic and mechanical.

Temperature effect medicinal water on the body when taking baths – its strongest and most important property. Cold mineral waters with a temperature of up to 20C, due to their good thermal conductivity, in contact with the human body, take away heat from it, quickly relieve fatigue, tiredness, and apathy. Cold medicinal food water enhances intestinal function. Warm waters with a temperature of 20-37C, on the contrary, quickly release heat to the body, having a physically beneficial effect on it.

Chemical irritation is one of the main and long-lasting effects of mineral waters on the body. The intensity of this effect increases when taking baths with high mineralization of water. In mineral waters it should not exceed 12-15 g/l. For example, the mineralization of the Kislovodsk Narzan varies from 1.5 to 6 g/l, the waters of Essentuki does not exceed 9 g/l.

Mineral waters, when used externally (baths, showers, inhalations) and internally (drinking), have a beneficial effect on the nerve endings and the circulatory system, increase the reactivity of the body, improve the metabolic processes of the digestive organs, the activity of the gastrointestinal tract and other internal organs, and accelerate the elimination of harmful components.

The same mineral water, due to the presence of various salts, trace elements and gases in its composition, affects the human body differently, having a beneficial effect on it in various diseases. For example, waters containing table salt, i.e. sodium chlorides (Talitsky, Nalchikovsky, Minsky) have a beneficial effect on the digestive organs; calcium chlorides promote anti-inflammatory processes and have a positive effect on nervous system; Magnesium chlorides help dilate blood vessels. Sulfate waters are mainly choleretic and laxative. The presence of soda in water (Borjomi) reduces acidity.

However, many mineral waters have a complex composition and have a varied effect on the human body. For example, salt-alkaline waters such as Essentuki, Zheleznovodsk and Chelkar are a unique combination of two types of waters that have opposite physiological effects. These waters are equally useful for stomach diseases with both high and low acidity.

The therapeutic activity of many mineral waters is associated with the presence of microelements in their composition - Fe, As, Co, I, Br, organic acids, etc. They are part of a number of substances vital for the body, such as hemoglobin (Fe, Co), some hormones (Zn), enzymes (Fe, Mn, Cu, etc.), vitamins (Co). Therefore, for example, ferruginous waters have a beneficial effect on hematopoietic processes, iodine waters improve the functioning of the thyroid gland and liver, and bromine waters normalize the central nervous system.

The gas composition of mineral springs has important balneological significance. Particularly valuable are waters saturated with carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and radon.

The mechanical effect of mineral waters is associated with the pressure of its mass on the body (baths, showers, swimming). This effect can be enhanced by rubbing and directing water under a certain pressure (Charcot's shower).

Thus, mineral waters are widely used in the national economy. They are mainly valuable in balneological terms, because... have a therapeutic effect on the human body with the entire complex of substances dissolved in them. And the presence in them of specific biologically active components (etc.) and special properties often determines the methods of their medicinal use.

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Plan

Introduction

1. General characteristics of mineral waters

2. Signs of mineral waters

3. Classification of mineral waters

4. Use of mineral waters and their effect on the human body

5. Patterns of distribution of mineral waters

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Our planet can be called a water or hydroplanet. The overall balance of water in the earth's crust consists of the waters of the World Ocean, glaciers, lakes and rivers, waters of the atmosphere and the lithosphere (underground hydrosphere). All this amounts to about 1.8 billion km of water. A significant amount of salty and mineralized waters of different compositions. The deep zones of the earth's crust are characterized by mineral water, i.e. waters with mineralization exceeding 1 g/l and containing a number of chemical components.

My course work is devoted to mineral waters. The purpose of my work is to highlight the main issues about mineral waters, their classification, features of chemical composition, gas and temperature regime, conditions of formation, patterns of occurrence and distribution, as well as their use and effect on the human body.

Mineral water is a kind of natural medicine created by nature itself. The healing effect of mineral water on the human body, its healing properties since ancient times. Resorts, sanatoriums, health resorts, and mineral water bottling plants have been built on the basis of mineral water deposits. Finally, mineral waters are suitable for extracting useful components from them and extracting salts. All this speaks of the importance, significance and relevance of the topic of my course work.

1. General characteristics of mineral waters

Mineral waters include underground (sometimes surface) waters, characterized by a high content of biologically active components and possessing specific physical and chemical properties (chemical composition, temperature, radioactivity, etc.), due to which they have a healing effect on the human body.

Mineral waters in the broad sense of the word are underground and surface natural waters with a total mineralization of over 1 g/l, which are used for medicinal and industrial purposes. Medicinal waters are those that, due to their physical and chemical characteristics, have a beneficial healing effect on the human body: for example, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, etc. Industrially valuable waters include waters from which components useful in the national economy can be extracted (table salt, bromine, iodine, boron, etc.).

Special criteria have been developed to classify natural waters as mineral waters. When selecting criteria for assessing mineral waters, from a significant amount of data characterizing their chemical and physical properties, the most important ones were selected, determining the physiological, and therefore medicinal, effect of waters, as well as those important in relation to identifying their genetic types.

These signs were included in accordance with the views of the majority of balneologists and hydrogeologists:

b) ionic composition of mineral waters;

c) gas composition and gas saturation of waters (dissolved and spontaneous);

e) radioactivity of waters;

f) active reaction of water, characterized by pH value;

g) water temperature.

Along with ordinary fresh water, which is widely used as drinking, household, and technical water, there are natural waters in nature that are so diverse in their properties that they cannot always, or cannot be used at all, for these purposes. Among these waters are cold and hot waters of medicinal, industrial and thermal energy significance. Such waters are called mineral, and all other waters on Earth - non-mineral.

Mineral waters should not be confused with mineralized ones. In the broad sense of the word, all waters in nature are mineralized to one degree or another, from snow to brines. In the narrow sense of the word, mineral waters include waters with a total salt concentration of more than 1-2 g/l.

Based on the principle of the unity of the Earth’s waters, according to V.M. Severgin and V.I. Vernadsky, the following should be classified as mineral:

mineral lakes with their healing and peat muds;

mineral underground waters with their sediments - ocher, tuff, some mine waters;

water and mud of mud volcanoes.

Mineral lakes and mud, underground mineral waters with their sediments constitute the hydromineral resources of our planet. Resorts, sanatoriums, health resorts, factories for bottling mineral water, extracting useful components from it, extracting salts, etc. were built on the basis of explored mineral water deposits.

The healing properties of natural waters are often due to the presence in them of small amounts of components that have a therapeutic active “specific” effect on the human body and promote healing from ailments. These substances are called physiologically active or specific (I, Br, etc.). In some cases, organic substances contained in water have a therapeutic effect on the human body (Naftusya water).

On different stages geological study of mineral waters, an opinion was expressed about their unusual nature and deep origin. The opinion gradually dissipated. Indeed, some mineral waters, especially thermal ones, are formed at great depths. But often there are no less valuable mineral springs associated with the upper aquifers up to and including groundwater - some hydrogen sulfide, ferruginous, radon waters. Finally, there is a large group of mineral lakes.

2. Signs of mineral waters

External signs: hydrogen sulfide waters have a distinct smell, sometimes at a considerable distance from the outlet; to taste - salt waters and brines, carbonated waters; by the rapid release of spontaneous gas bubbles in the head of the source - carbon dioxide water; according to the color and composition of the deposits of the sources - ferruginous deposits, red-brown ocher (a sign ferruginous waters), siliceous deposits - geyserites (a sign of siliceous waters), white calcareous deposits, travertines, calcareous tuffs (carbon dioxide, calcium waters), fluorine-bearing geyserites (fluorine hydrotherms).

Temperature: hot water can be identified by sensation, and even more so by measuring the temperature.

Chemical and gas composition: according to the composition of water and gases dissolved in it, waters are distinguished as soda, sulfate, chloride, iodide, bromide, etc. Experience in traditional healing or the use of water to boil down table salt: these signs are identified through a survey of the population and make it possible to determine the location of the mineral spring in order to carry out control studies on it.

3. Classification of mineral waters

Most of the classifications put forward at different times are based on the characteristics of the chemical or gas composition of waters, and either the predominant ions, or microelements, or gases, etc. were usually taken as the basis for distinguishing classes. The main drawback of these classifications is the lack of a comprehensive principle in the assessment of mineral waters.

V.V. Ivanov and G.A. Nevraev, in order to more comprehensively evaluate various mineral medicinal waters, developed a classification based on the main criteria for their assessment and data on the patterns of formation of mineral waters. Based on the types of water that actually exist in nature, they proposed a classification table in which each water is assigned a strictly defined place. Such a classification table has important practical significance: using the method of analogy and comparison, one can judge the medicinal qualities of the newly obtained water (due to large sizes the table is not shown here).

According to the classification of Ivanov and Nevraev, all natural (underground) waters are divided according to composition, properties and medicinal value into six main balneological groups.

Group A. Waters without “specific” components and properties. Their medicinal value is determined only by the ionic composition and the amount of mineralization in the presence in their gas component mainly of nitrogen and methane, which are contained in waters in a dissolved state at atmospheric pressure only in small quantities.

Group B. The waters are carbonic. Their medicinal value is determined, first of all, by the presence of large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide, which occupies a dominant position in the overall gas composition of these waters (80-100%), as well as by the ionic composition and the amount of mineralization.

Group B. Hydrogen sulfide (sulfide) waters. These waters are identified by the presence of free hydrogen sulfide and hydrosulfide ions in their composition, which determine the therapeutic effect of mineral waters, used primarily for baths. The total hydrogen sulfide content of these waters should not be lower than 10 mg/l.

Group G. The waters are ferruginous (Fe + Fe), arsenic (As) and with a high content of Mn, Cu, Al, etc. Their therapeutic effect is determined, in addition to the ionic and gas composition and mineralization, by the presence of one or more of the listed pharmacologically active components. No standards have been established for the content of Mn, Cu, and Al in these waters. These elements are usually found in elevated concentrations only in highly ferruginous sulfate waters of the oxidation zone of ore deposits, as well as in highly sulfate and chloride-sulfate (fumarolic) thermal waters of volcanic areas.

Group D. The waters are bromide (Br), iodide (I) and high in organic matter. To classify waters as bromide and iodide (or iodine-bromide), the accepted content of bromine is 25 mg/l and iodine is 5 mg/l with a mineralization of no more than 12-13 g/l. With higher mineralization, the norms increase accordingly.

Sufficiently justified standards for assessing the high content of organic matter in medicinal mineral waters have not yet been developed. There are two known types of mineral waters with a high content of organic matter - Naftusya (Western Ukraine) and Bramstedt (Germany).

Group E. The waters are radon (radioactive). This group includes all mineral waters containing more than 50 eman/l (14 Mache units) of radon.

Group J. Siliceous thermal baths. This group of waters includes siliceous thermal waters, which are widespread in nature. As a conditional norm, the content in them is taken to be 50 mg/l, at a temperature of more than 35ºC.

Based on temperature, mineral waters are divided into three groups:

always cold, forming, as a rule, at shallow depths;

cold, warm or hot depending on the depth of circulation;

always hot, the genesis and compositional features of which are closely related to their territoriality. The latter include all terms included in groups B and D.

Based on pH value, waters are divided into 6 groups. The pH value is especially important for the therapeutic assessment of hydrogen sulfide (sulfide) waters, since it determines the ratio of free and siliceous thermals in the waters, the amount and form of presence in which depends on the alkalinity or acidity of the waters.

This division of mineral waters according to pH value - according to acid-base properties - was clarified and more well substantiated in physicochemical terms by A.N. Pavlov and V.N. Shemyakin.

These classifications of medicinal, industrial and thermal energy waters are of a private nature and special appointment. There are numerous attempts to create general, natural history, genetic and other classifications of natural waters according to composition and mineralization.

Classification of mineral waters of Ivanov and Nevraev by mineralization are intended for medicinal waters and are not suitable for industrial and thermal power applications.

4. The use of mineral waters and their effect on the body

person

The healing effect of mineral water on the human body and its healing properties have been known to people since ancient times. Therapeutic water procedures, according to the written monuments that have reached us, were widely used in medicine in Ancient Greece, Rome, India, Egypt, Peru, and Georgia. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 370 BC) tried to explain the effect of mineral waters on the human body. The action of healing agents was also of interest to the brilliant scientist of the Middle Ages, Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna). However, at that time, people could not fully appreciate the healing properties of mineral waters, and the clergy cleverly took advantage of this, attributing their properties to divine power.

On the territory of the former USSR there are more than 7.5 thousand mineral springs, about 500 balneological resorts. They are very diverse in the material and gas composition of waters, and in the nature of their impact on the human body. On the territory of Russia and the former CIS countries there are types of medicinal waters known throughout the world. Mineral carbonic waters of Kislovodsk, Essentuki, Zheleznovodsk, Borjomi, Arzni, hydrogen sulfide waters - Sochi - Matsesta, Ust-Kachinsk (Perm region), Talgi (Dagestan), radon waters of Pyatigorsk, Tskaltubo, ferruginous waters - Marcial, Polyustrovsky, Truskovets and many others enjoy worldwide fame .

Healing mineral waters, depending on their specificity, have a complex effect on the human body - thermal (temperature), chemical, therapeutic and mechanical.

The temperature effect of medicinal water on the body when taking baths is its strongest and most important property. Cold mineral waters with a temperature of up to 20C, due to their good thermal conductivity, in contact with the human body, take away heat from it, quickly relieve fatigue, tiredness, and apathy. Cold medicinal food water enhances intestinal function. Warm waters with a temperature of 20-37C, on the contrary, quickly release heat to the body, having a physically beneficial effect on it.

The same mineral water, due to the presence of various salts, trace elements and gases in its composition, affects the human body differently, having a beneficial effect on it in various diseases. For example, waters containing table salt, i.e. sodium chlorides (Talitsky, Nalchikovsky, Minsky) have a beneficial effect on the digestive organs; calcium chlorides promote anti-inflammatory processes and have a positive effect on the nervous system; Magnesium chlorides help dilate blood vessels. Sulfate waters are mainly choleretic and laxative. The presence of soda in water (Borjomi) reduces acidity.

The gas composition of mineral springs has important balneological significance. Particularly valuable are waters saturated with carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and radon.

5. Patterns of distribution of mineral waters

The distribution of mineral waters is determined by a complex combination of geological, structural, hydrogeological, geochemical and geothermal conditions of their formation. The main ones are:

lithology and reservoir properties of rocks;

facies conditions and features of the geological history of the basins in which the accumulation of sediments occurred, as well as paleo- and modern hydrogeological conditions that determine the degree of washing of sedimentary rocks;

the presence of young magmatic processes and especially modern volcanism, causing intense thermometamorphism of rocks;

the intensity and nature of neotectonic movements and, in particular, the existence of young open tectonic faults;

geothermal regime, changing in various geological structures and geographical zones within a very wide range from normal to sharply anomalous - “volcanogenic” (in the sphere of influence of young magma chambers) and “cryogenic” (in permafrost areas);

the presence at some depth in sedimentary deposits of biochemical and microbiological processes.

The famous French expert on ore deposits and mineral waters L. de Launay (1899) expressed the following position, reflecting the prevailing idea at that time: “...thermal springs, like the volcanoes with which they are related by common origin, are confined to the youngest dislocations the earth’s crust (to folded regions and deep faults) and are localized in fairly limited zones of the earth’s crust where these phenomena are developed.” But at the same time, he distinguished two categories of mineral springs: vein And reservoir. The first represent vein thermal waters migrating along cracks, the second are associated with formational thermal horizons that can feed natural mineral springs or be opened by artesian wells.

The most common case of the appearance of thermal springs is the presence of a tectonic disturbance, which is intersected by an erosive depression of the relief (valley, hollow, gorge, etc.).

From the classification of tectonic disturbances given in the geology textbook by I.V. Mushketov, it is clear that thermal water outlets were usually associated with cracks:

1) diaclases;

veins and dikes of igneous rocks;

metal-bearing veins.

Each type was illustrated with a characteristic example. For the first case, the carbon sources of Ems (Germany), the second - Yverdon and Baden (Switzerland), the third - Vichy (France), the fourth - Bagnères-de-Luchon (Pyrenees - France), the fifth - Plombières (Vosges).

In 1931 A.M. Ovchinnikov, in his report “Geological structures of mineral water areas” at the First All-Union Hydrogeological Congress in Leningrad, systematized the conditions for mineral waters to reach the surface. Three main types have been identified:

I - platform areas, as the simplest, where mineral waters form reservoir horizons and appear on the surface as a result of: 1) artificial opening by drilling wells or wells (Solvychegodsk, Belaya Gorka, Staraya Russa, etc.); 2) the presence of tectonic discontinuities such as faults, flexures, etc. in combination with deep erosion (Krainsky mineral waters, Sergievsky, etc.).

II - border areas between platforms and folded structures, where mineral waters are confined to: 1) zones of transverse cracks (KMS region, Central Plateau of France, etc.); 2) to areas complicated by intrusions, for example, such as the KMV laccoliths, in which water can flow, and along concentric faults.

III - from masonry structures: 1) areas of predominant distribution of folded tectonic forms - anticlines and synclines. Mineral water outlets are confined to the axial parts of folds, as well as to areas of development of tectonic cracks of various systems (diagonal, etc.).

Experience in working on mineral waters has shown the need for a thorough geological and structural analysis of mineral water areas with a detailed study of rock fracturing. In rocks broken by various systems of cracks, the most water-abundant zones of open cracks associated with systems of closed cracks can be identified. It should be emphasized the great hydrogeological significance of transverse and diagonal zones of tectonic deformations and cracks, which are extension zones, i.e. representing systems of open cracks.

When carrying out drilling operations, one can clearly see how differently interacting wells are laid in areas that differ in the degree of rock fracturing. In the history of drilling operations for the purpose of exploring mineral waters, there were cases when three wells, laid in rocks in a triangle with a distance of sides of about 100 m, gave mineral water, and the central, fourth well, laid in the center of the triangle, was almost waterless. With uniform fracturing (lithoclase) and porosity of rocks, such cases are difficult to expect.

The most characteristic rock complexes with which mineral waters are associated are:

Carbonate - limestone or dolomite, broken by cracks and karst on protruding areas. Associated with the strata of carbonate rocks are mineral waters such as carbonated waters such as Narzan, hydrogen sulfide waters of Matsesta, radon waters of Tskhaltubo, thermal waters of Piescany in Slovakia, Budapest, etc.

Alternating sandy-clayey deposits forming the so-called flysch. These strata are associated with the formation of hydrocarbonate-sodium waters of the Borjomi type - Borjomi, Vishi, Dilijan and others, as well as waters of chloride-hydrocarbonate-sodium composition.

Volcanogenic, tuffaceous rocks representing accumulations of tuffs, tuff breccias and tuff sandstones, often interspersed with covers and lava flows. Many hydrosulfate thermal waters of the Caucasus (Tbilisi, Abastumani, etc.), as well as some other regions, are associated with these strata.

Massifs of igneous rocks representing a wide variety of forms, ranging from small dikes, laccoliths and ending with large batholith-like bodies. In such massifs, broken by cracks, weakly mineralized nitrogen thermal baths are developed, in places with increased radioactivity (for example, Belokurikha thermal baths, confined to a granite massif at the northern foot of Altai, the Rhodope massif in Bulgaria, etc.).

Great importance in the distribution of mineral waters various types have geotectonic conditions. Currently, it is customary to distinguish three large geotectonic elements: I - shields or projections of the ancient crystalline foundation, composed of crystalline or metamorphic rocks; II - platforms composed of sedimentary deposits, usually weakly folded and unconformably overlying a crystalline basement (the roof of which is located at various depths); III - geosynclines - mobile, differently dislocated sections of the earth's crust, composed of complexes of a wide variety of rocks - sedimentary, igneous, metamorphic.

Within the above major geotectonic elements, smaller structures are distinguished, which complicate the picture of the distribution of mineral waters (uplifts, troughs, anteclises, syneclises, shafts, domes, etc.).

In the process of geological history, depending on the characteristics of sedimentation, the processes of diagenesis and epigenesis and the conditions of migration of groundwater in past times, hydrogeochemical zoning is created within groundwater basins, which, despite some common features, manifests itself differently in different basins. Such groundwater basins, including: areas of modern atmospheric water infiltration and pressure creation; areas of distribution of aquifers (including horizons of mineral waters) and areas of flow or discharge are called water pumping systems.

A.M. Ovchinnikov identifies 6 types of water pressure systems:

large artesian basins of platform areas;

middle artesian basins of marginal, foothill troughs and intermountain basins;

small artesian basins, often superimposed on other water systems;

water-pressure systems of fissure waters in protruding massifs of crystalline and metamorphic rocks;

articulated basins of mountain structures;

large basins and groundwater flows having the character of subartesian basins and slopes.

Within the main water-pressure systems, systems (pools) of the second and third orders are distinguished. Identification of water-pressure systems and comparison of them with geomorphological elements and surface runoff basins makes it possible to delineate hydrogeological areas, which are usually shown on hydrogeological zoning maps. Thus, hydrogeological areas, such as the KMV, Sochi - Matsestinsky, Borjomi, can be considered as groundwater basins, including areas of recharge and discharge and confined to one or more geological structures or to part of the structure, characterized by the characteristic zoning of groundwater that was created in the process of historical development of the region.

Mineral waters are found in all types of geological structures. On the ledges of the ancient Precambrian foundation they are developed in fractured zones, mainly in the weathering crust of massive rocks or in areas of a thin cover of loose sediments. Platform areas represent large artesian basins with well-defined hydrogeochemical zoning, with waters of a wide range of mineralization and diverse composition. Similar conditions are observed in the artesian basins of intermountain depressions and adjacent basins of folded regions.

In the marginal parts of the basins, starting directly from the feeding area, there are zones of low-mineralized infiltration waters, usually of the hydrocarbonate-calcium type. This is followed by a zone of hydrocarbonate-sodium or sulfate-sodium-calcium waters. It is followed by a transition zone of mixed hydrocarbonate-chloride-sodium waters or sulfate-chloride waters and, finally, a zone of chloride waters, which is the area of the most ancient highly mineralized waters of the basin.

Low-mineralized waters in the upper artesian horizons are formed in the presence of a direct connection with the surface and in internal parts basin, if favorable hydrodynamic conditions exist.

At the top there is a zone of more or less intense movement of infiltration atmospheric waters. An oxidizing situation with gases in the waters of the upper zone is typical here: oxygen, often carbon dioxide. The oxygen content consumed for oxidation gradually decreases from top to bottom, while nitrogen of air origin remains.

In contrast, in deeper zones we have a reducing environment in which, as a result of biochemical and other processes, waters are enriched with methane and other hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide.

The processes of replacement of ancient waters in the basin occur differently in different geostructural elements. In mountain ranges, which are hydrogeologically open structures, this process occurs more intensely and quickly than in intermountain and foothill depressions.

In the foothill marginal parts of artesian basins, reverse vertical zoning (inversion) is sometimes observed: under the horizons of saline waters there are sometimes aquifers with relatively low mineralized alkaline or sulfate waters, which is explained in most cases by more intense penetration of infiltration waters at higher elevated outcrops of aquifers in feeding areas (usually located on the slopes of mountain ranges).

In the event of magmatic activity occurring within the water-pressure systems, the resulting deep hydrotherms and gases (especially) are introduced along the cracks of rocks into the overlying strata, where they join the previously formed waters, which have one or another composition depending on the stage of their formation, and included in the general water supply system. Moreover, the composition of the latter undergoes one or another change as a result of the activation of physicochemical processes associated with the saturation of waters with gases of magmatic and thermometamorphic origin. A particularly characteristic process here is the saturation of water with carbon dioxide and the resulting intensive dissolution of rock minerals.

As a result of a complex combination of folded disturbances and tectonic ruptures within mountainous regions, zones of increased fracturing of rocks are sometimes created, favorable for the migration of water to great depths and their release in low areas of the relief.

Within the zone of alpine folding and recent mountain formation, covering the territory of Russia from the south and further extending to the Far East, intense hydrothermal activity is observed. This zone encircles the Pacific Ocean and continues into the Cordilleras and the Andes. The zone of recent mountain formation is dominated by complex mountainous terrain, which contributes to the creation of high pressure and the development of a variety of mineral and fresh springs.

Conclusion

So, in conclusion, we can conclude: mineral (medicinal) waters include natural waters that can have a therapeutic effect on the human body, due to either the increased content of useful, biologically active components of the ionic-salt or gas composition, or the general ionic-salt composition of the water . Mineral waters are not a specific genetic type of groundwater. These include waters that are very different in terms of formation conditions and differ in chemical composition.

For medicinal purposes, they use water with mineralization from fractions of a gram per 1 liter to highly concentrated brines, various ionic, gas and microcomponent compositions, and different temperatures. Among the underground waters classified as mineral, there are infiltration and sedimentation waters, as well as waters that are more or less associated with modern magmatic activity. They are common in various hydrodynamic and hydrothermal zones of the earth's crust, under diverse geochemical conditions and can be confined to aquifers distributed over vast areas or can represent strictly localized fissure-vein waters.

List of used literature

1. Ovchinnikov A.M. Mineral water. 2nd ed. - M.

2. Ivanov V.V., Nevraev G.A. Classification of underground mineral waters, - M.

3. http://www.xumuk.ru/encyklopedia

4. http://www.rusmedserver.ru

What are mineral fertilizers

Summer residents, fearing chemicals, prefer to feed plants with organic fertilizers, without thinking that they contain a small amount of useful components. Vegetables, berries, and shrubs must receive many different elements for proper growth and productivity. Often there is not enough nutrition due to the characteristics of the soil:

clayey – iron, manganese;
peat bogs – copper;
sour, marshy - zinc;
sandstones have a lack of magnesium, potassium, and nitrogen.

Plants signal their problems by changing the color of the leaves, the size and shape of the fruits. A person’s task is to fertilize in a timely manner. Mineral fertilizers are chemical compounds inorganic origin. They have one main component or several. Beneficial substances, in the form of mineral salts, help:

increase in yield;
strengthening plants;
pest protection;
stimulation of growth and nutrition;
improving the quality of fruits;
soil restoration;
weed protection;
strengthening plant immunity.

Types of mineral fertilizers

The fertilizer mixture is used for intensive farming in reputable companies, summer cottages. What applies to mineral fertilizers? It is important to know the characteristics different categories. There are different types of fertilizers and their classification:

Simple or one-sided, containing a single substance. These include phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen fertilizers.
Complex minerals - include several active substances that simultaneously affect the soil and plants.
Microfertilizers with a complex composition of microelements - molybdenum, calcium, iodine, manganese.

Nitrogen fertilizers

The use of mineral fertilizers with a high nitrogen content helps the development of the stem and leaves of the plant, which is necessary in the spring. Good solubility allows their liquid and solid use. Nitrogen mineral fertilizers have the following classification:

Nitrate - calcium, sodium nitrate, suitable for acidic soil, recommended for plants with a short ripening period - radishes, lettuce. When in excess, it causes harm - it accumulates in fruits.
Ammonium - ammonium sulfate - requires autumn application. Onions, tomatoes, and cucumbers respond well to it.

The following types of fertilizers are used by large manufacturers and private owners:

Amide - urea - has the highest concentration of nitrogen and contributes to a large harvest. It requires application into the ground, and is useful for tomatoes during setting and growth.
Ammonium nitrate - ammonium nitrate - when combined with potassium and phosphorus, the yield of grain crops, beets, and potatoes increases.

Potash fertilizers

To increase disease resistance, improve taste, and increase the shelf life of fruits, you cannot do without potassium. Popular types of potash fertilizers:

Potassium chloride is a natural raw material extracted from ore. Contains chlorine, which is harmful to some plants. To avoid bad influences, fertilizer should be applied in the fall. It works well on beets, barley, potatoes, and buckwheat.

Together with microelements, phosphorus and nitrogen, potassium increases plant productivity. Fertilizers have become widespread:

Potassium salt – has a high concentration of potassium and is applied in the fall. Promotes the growth of potatoes and grain crops.
Potassium nitrate - contains nitrogen, useful for setting and ripening fruits.
Potassium sulfate is used for fertilizing all crops and is added to the soil when growing root crops.

Phosphorus fertilizers

Phosphorus is needed to feed berry bushes and trees. Its use accelerates fruit set and increases resistance to frost in winter. Fertilizing with phosphorus fertilizers is effective:

Simple superphosphate - poured into the ground and used during the flowering period. Ideal fertilizer for flowers.
Phosphorite flour - requires acidic soil to work. Suitable for grains and vegetables. Can provide the plant with phosphorus for many years.
Double superphosphate is used for berry bushes, applied in the fall under flowers for better wintering.

Microfertilizers

In the classification of mineral fertilizers for plant nutrition, there is a group with microelements. Molybdenum, copper or manganese are often missing from the soil. You can compensate for iron or zinc deficiency by treating the seed material with mineral microfertilizers, while observing the norm. When used, the root system actively develops, protection against diseases increases, and growth accelerates.

Types of microfertilizers are classified according to their active substance:

complex - contain several elements - increase productivity, fight pests - “Master”, “Sizam”, “Oracle”;
copper – for wetlands – copper sulfate, pyrite;
boric acids – tend to activate the growth of young plants – borax, boric acid;
molybdenum - for forest soils - ammonium molybdic acid.

Complex mineral fertilizers

This group of mineral fertilizers includes multifaceted preparations containing several active ingredients. Complex mineral fertilizer solves various problems - increases yield, counteracts weeds and pests, improves the quality of flowers. This group includes:

Ammophos is a nitrogen-phosphorus fertilizer. Suitable for vegetable and berry crops, especially good for flowers - they begin to grow wildly and bloom lushly.
Diammofoska - contains basic substances - potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus and trace elements. Fertilizer helps control pests and is used for all plants.

Large agricultural companies apply complex fertilizers to the soil using a fertilizer seeder, as in the photo. Summer residents scatter them in spring or autumn, depending on the type of soil. Popular mineral complexes:

Nitroammophoska. Suitable for any plants and soils - applied to clay soils in the fall, to sandy soils in the spring, before plowing.
Nitrophoska. Excellent for tomatoes, improving their taste and increasing their size. Used in spring and during the growing season. Cucumbers are not affected by diseases.

Application of mineral fertilizers

An experienced gardener will determine by the appearance of the plant what substances it lacks. What mineral fertilizers are needed and their use on the site:

with nitrogen deficiency, growth is slowed down, the lower leaves die and dry out;
lack of phosphorus is manifested by their reddish, grayish color;
lack of potassium reduces seed germination, increases susceptibility to disease, the lower leaves at the edges begin to turn yellow, become brown, and die;
in the absence of zinc, apple trees form a small rosette;
Magnesium deficiency is marked by pale green color.

Nutrient fertilizers are applied by adding them to the soil by digging and watering dissolved preparations. When using mineral compounds, the following fertilizer groups should not be mixed:

urea with lime, simple superphosphate, manure, ammonium nitrate;
ammonium sulfate with dolomite, chalk;
simple superphosphate with lime, ammonium nitrate, urea;
potassium salt with dolomite, chalk.

Before you start feeding plants and soil, you need to understand the rules for using fertilizers. There are ways to apply mineral fertilizers, depending on the composition:

Nitrogen is incorporated into the soil in the spring, and when dug up, it has the ability to evaporate. When consumed in the fall, the beneficial substances will be washed away with the rains.
Ammonium nitrate is scattered over the snow, which the granules melt, making their way to the soil.

Other active mineral components have their own characteristics when added:

Potassium is buried in the soil in spring and autumn. It is preferable to use potassium chloride at the end of summer so that the chlorine disappears.
Phosphorus can be added at any time. It should be taken into account that it is poorly soluble in water and can reach the roots after 2 months. It is preferable to fertilize at the end of summer to strengthen the plants for the winter season.

Calculation of doses of mineral fertilizers

Specialists from large agricultural companies calculate fertilizer doses depending on the type of soil separately for each crop. At the same time, the standard for the use of mineral fertilizers per hectare of land is taken into account. It is important to know the content of the active substance in the composition. Summer residents can use mineral fertilizer application rates in grams per square meter:

ammonium nitrate – 15-25;
superphosphate – 40-60;
potassium chloride – 15-20;
nitroammophoska – 70-80.

Fertilizer selection

Winter is a time of preparation for the new season. Any specialized store can offer many preparations for plants. In order to choose the right mineral fertilizers, it is necessary to take into account the problems that need to be solved with their help, and to provide for a number of factors:

desired impact;
seasonality of use;
release form and volume;
manufacturer's company.

Impact

According to their effect, fertilizers are divided as follows:

Soil restoration. Kemira Lux – promotes growth under climate change. Plus - excellent quality, minus – severe soil deoxidation.
Pest protection. "GUMATEM" - increases the yield due to their absence. Plus – neutralization of the effects of pesticides. The disadvantage is the need for strict adherence to the dose.

According to their effects, the following fertilizers are distinguished:

Growth stimulation. "Emix" - increases productivity and immunity. Plus - high concentration, a small amount is needed. Disadvantage: it takes time to prepare.
Weed protection. Etisso - gives an excellent effect for lawn grass. Plus – affects plants through leaves and roots. Minus - valid for the next year.
Boosting immunity. Nitroammofoska - suitable for all crops. Plus - easy dissolution in water. Disadvantage: short shelf life.

Seasonality

When choosing mineral fertilizers, you need to pay attention to seasonality:

Spring is the time for nitrogen fertilizers. Urea – promotes the growth of stems and leaves. Plus – it is well absorbed by plants. Minus - in case of overdose, small fruits, gain of green mass.
Summer requires phosphorus fertilizers. Superphosphate – promotes fruit formation. Plus - meets the need for a specific substance. The downside is the lack of microelements.

Focusing on seasonality, you need to consider:

In winter, plants do not feed; autumn fertilizers are used to prepare them for the cold season. Potassium sulfate has a strengthening effect and helps withstand frost. Plus - it is well absorbed, disadvantage - it is not suitable for all soils.
All-season fertilizers. Fertika is a complex drug. Plus - it contains many useful active ingredients. Minus – additional microelements are required.

Release form

Based on their appearance, mineral fertilizers are divided into 3 groups:

Granules. Superphosphate - added to the soil when digging, used in dissolved form. Plus - ease of use. The downside is that it takes a long time to dissolve.
Liquid. Carbide-ammonium mixture - used for irrigation. Plus – high concentration, minus – it is necessary to comply with the norms when feeding.
Powder. Magnesium lime - added to the soil during digging. Plus - it is quickly absorbed. Disadvantage: it is poorly stored and caked.

Volume

Large farms purchase the necessary minerals in tons in bags. Experts recommend for garden plot on 6 acres, purchase approximately 12 kg of mineral preparations for feeding. Gardeners must estimate in advance the required volume, taking into account packaging and application rates. For example, fertilizer:

“Kemira potato” in granules – 5 kg packaging;
“Gumatem” – liquid form – 250 ml in a bottle.

Manufacturer

You can make a choice of mineral preparations based on the manufacturer. Many companies have many years of experience and good quality reviews. Popular fertilizer suppliers:

"Fasco" is an effective preparation in liquid and granular form. The plus is fertilizers for specific plants, the minuses are inherent in individual substances.
"Kemira" - a wide range of drugs for different seasons. Plus - Finnish quality, disadvantages - in accordance with the existing composition.
"Agricola" - soluble fertilizers. Plus - they are effective when growing all crops, minus - you need to maintain the dosage.

Video: Mineral fertilizers tuki

Human life is impossible without drinking water. However, salty and mineralized waters of various compositions also play an important role in ensuring human health.

The concept of mineral waters and criteria for their evaluation
TO mineral waters These include underground (sometimes surface) waters, characterized by a high content of biologically active components and possessing specific physical and chemical properties (chemical composition, temperature, radioactivity, etc.), due to which they have a therapeutic effect on the human body.

Mineral waters in the broad sense of the word are underground and surface natural waters with a total mineralization of over 1 g/l, which are used for medicinal and industrial purposes. In the narrow sense of the word, mineral waters include waters with a total salt concentration of more than 1-2 g/l.

Mineral waters should not be confused with mineralized ones, since all waters in nature are mineralized to one degree or another, from snow to brines.

Medicinal waters are those mineral waters that, due to their physical and chemical characteristics, have a beneficial healing effect on the human body. The healing properties of natural waters are due to the presence in them of a small amount of components that have a therapeutic active “specific” effect on the human body and promote healing from ailments. These substances are called physiologically active or specific (I, Br, etc.). In some cases, organic substances contained in water have a therapeutic effect on the human body (Naftusya water).

Industrially valuable mineral waters include those waters from which components useful in the national economy (table salt, bromine, iodine, boron, etc.) can be extracted.
- Criteria for evaluating mineral waters
  To classify natural waters as mineral, scientists, balneologists and hydrogeologists have developed special criteria:
  - The total content of substances dissolved in water is the total mineralization of water.
  - Ionic composition of mineral waters.
  - Gas composition and gas saturation of waters.
  - Content of pharmacological (therapeutic) active microelements (mineral and organic) in waters.
  - Radioactivity of water.
  - Active reaction of water, characterized by pH value.
  - Water temperature

Signs of mineral waters
- External signs of mineral waters:
  - Smell. Hydrogen sulfide waters are sometimes visible at a considerable distance from the outlet.
  - Taste. Salt waters and brines.
  - Carbon dioxide waters are determined by the rapid release of spontaneous gas bubbles into the source.
  - Color. Ferrous deposits, ocher-red-brown color (a sign of ferruginous waters), siliceous deposits - geyserites (a sign of siliceous waters), white calcareous deposits (carbon dioxide, calcium waters), fluorine-bearing geyserites (fluoride hydrotherms).
- Temperature. Hot waters have more dissolved salts, but less gases, in cold weather it’s the other way around. Based on temperature, mineral waters are divided into:
  - cold (below 20°C),
  - warm (20-35°C),
  - hot (35-42°C),
  - very hot (above 42°C).
- Chemical and gas composition. Based on the composition of water and gases dissolved in it, mineral waters are divided into:
  - sodas,
  - sulfate,
  - chloride,
  - iodide,
  - bromide, etc.
- According to the pH of the environment. Medicinal mineral waters usually have neutral or alkaline environment(pH-6.8-8.5).

Classification of mineral waters
Most of the classifications put forward at different times are based on the characteristics of the chemical or gas composition of waters, and either the predominant ions, or microelements, or gases, etc. were usually taken as the basis for distinguishing classes. The main disadvantage of these classifications is the lack of a comprehensive principle in the assessment of mineral waters.
- Balneological groups
  Currently, balneological groups are distinguished. All natural (ground) waters are divided according to composition, properties and medicinal value into six main balneological groups:
  - Group A.
    Waters without “specific” components and properties. Their medicinal value is determined only by the ionic composition and the amount of mineralization in the presence in their gas component mainly of nitrogen and methane, which are contained in waters in a dissolved state at atmospheric pressure only in small quantities.
  - Group B.
    The waters are carbonic. Their medicinal value is determined, first of all, by the presence of large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide, which occupies a dominant position in the overall gas composition of these waters (80-100%), as well as by the ionic composition and the amount of mineralization.
  - Group B.
    Hydrogen sulfide (sulfide) waters. These waters are identified by the presence of free hydrogen sulfide and hydrosulfide ions in their composition, which determine the therapeutic effect of mineral waters, used primarily for baths. The total hydrogen sulfide content of these waters should not be lower than 10 mg/l.
  - Group G.
    The waters are ferruginous (Fe + Fe), arsenic (As) and with a high content of Mn, Cu, Al, etc. Their therapeutic effect is determined, in addition to the ionic and gas composition and mineralization, by the presence of one or more of the listed pharmacologically active components. No standards have been established for the content of Mn, Cu, and Al in these waters. These elements are usually found in elevated concentrations only in highly ferruginous sulfate waters of the oxidation zone of ore deposits, as well as in highly sulfate and chloride-sulfate (fumarolic) thermal waters of volcanic areas.
  - Group D.
    The waters are bromide (Br), iodide (I) and high in organic matter. To classify waters as bromide and iodide (or iodine-bromide), the accepted content of bromine is 25 mg/l and iodine is 5 mg/l with a mineralization of no more than 12-13 g/l. With higher mineralization, the norms increase accordingly.
    
    Sufficiently justified standards for assessing the high content of organic matter in medicinal mineral waters have not yet been developed. There are two known types of mineral waters with a high content of organic matter - Naftusya (Western Ukraine) and Bramstedt (Germany).
  - Group E.
    The waters are radon (radioactive). This group includes all mineral waters containing more than 50 eman/l of radon.
  - A separate group stands out - Siliceous thermal baths.
- Types of mineral waters
  For correct application mineral waters, you need to be able to distinguish between them. On each bottle with mineral water In addition to the name of the source, its type is also indicated. The type of mineral water and belonging to the balneological group is different approaches to the classification of mineral waters.
  
  There are 5 types of mineral waters in total:
  - Hydrocarbonate sodium waters (alkaline).
  - Chloride waters.
  - Sulfate waters.
  - Nitrate waters.
  - Waters of complex composition (combined).
    - Hydrocarbonate sodium chloride (salt-alkaline).
    - Hydrocarbonate sulfate.
    - Chloride sulfates.
    - Hydrocarbonate chloride sulfate.
    - Hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium waters.
  In addition to the ions indicated in the name of the type, each of these five types of mineral waters may contain other components. For example: iron, arsenic, iodine, bromine, silicon, some gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, radon, nitrogen, methane). This information is also indicated on the label, such as “iodine” or “siliceous” water.
  - Classification of mineral waters by level of mineralization
    - Low mineralized mineral waters. Salts in water range from 1.5 to 5 grams per liter.
    - Medium mineralized mineral waters. Salts in water range from 5 to 30 grams per liter.
    - Highly mineralized mineral waters. Salts in water are more than 30 grams per liter.
  - Clinical classification of mineral waters
    - Table mineral waters.
      Low-mineralized waters with a mineralization level of up to 1 g per liter are not medicinal, but table waters. Although these waters can sometimes have a normalizing effect on the digestive organs. Their main advantages are purity and harmlessness to the body. The presence of the word “canteen” in the name means that such water can be used as drinking water without consulting a doctor. These waters can be drunk without restrictions, and their natural composition and taste make the drinking procedure not only pleasant, but also healthy. Table mineral waters can be used as drinking water and also as a base for cooking.
      
      When talking about the high level of consumption of mineral waters in developed countries, we mean table waters.
    - Medicinal table mineral waters.
      Waters with a mineralization of more than 1 and up to 10 grams per liter are classified as medicinal table mineral waters. These waters, along with excellent table qualities, also have a healing effect.
    - Healing mineral waters.
      If the water mineralization exceeds 10 g/l, it is medicinal mineral water. Healing mineral waters are not drunk to quench thirst, they are used only for treatment. And only as prescribed by a doctor. Effective medicinal use of mineral waters can only be achieved if the method of use prescribed by the doctor is followed.
  - Classification of mineral waters according to their origin
    There are natural (natural) mineral waters and artificial mineral waters.
    
    Artificial mineral waters, similar in composition to natural ones, are prepared from chemically pure salts. They are used in so-called “hydropathies” for the preparation of carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, radon, iodine-bromine sodium chloride and other baths. Artificial mineral waters used as table waters and to quench thirst include soda water, which is fresh water saturated with carbon dioxide, to which bicarbonate of soda, calcium chloride, and magnesium chloride have been added.

The use of mineral waters in medicine and their effect on the human body
Mineral water is a kind of natural medicine created by nature itself.

The healing effect of mineral water on the human body, its healing properties since ancient times. Mineral water has been used as a therapeutic and prophylactic remedy for more than two thousand years. Therapeutic water procedures, according to the written monuments that have reached us, were widely used in medicine in Ancient Greece, Rome, India, Egypt, Peru, and Georgia. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) tried to explain the effect of mineral waters on the human body. The action of healing agents was also of interest to the brilliant scientist of the Middle Ages, Abu Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna). However, at that time, people could not fully appreciate the healing properties of mineral waters, and the clergy cleverly took advantage of this, attributing their properties to divine power.

Currently, medicinal underground waters are used extremely widely. In the Caucasus, Central Asia, Kazakhstan and other regions, glorified healing springs have been known for a long time. The first health resort in Russia was opened on the orders of Peter I in 1718 at the “marcial” (ferruginous) springs in Karelia. The first studies of the country's mineral waters are associated with the name of the great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, who identified “medicinal” waters and “healing” springs. Already in the second half of the 18th century, the “geography” of medicinal waters in Russia was created.

On the territory of Russia and the former CIS countries there are types of medicinal waters known throughout the world. Mineral carbonic waters of Kislovodsk, Essentuki, Zheleznovodsk, Borjomi, Arzni, hydrogen sulfide waters - Sochi - Matsesta, Ust-Kachinsk (Perm region), Talgi (Dagestan), radon waters of Pyatigorsk, Tskhaltubo, ferruginous waters - Marcial, Polyustrovsky, Truskovets and many others enjoy worldwide fame .
- The effect of mineral waters on the human body
  The therapeutic effect of mineral waters is multifactorial. Healing mineral waters have a complex effect on the human body - thermal (temperature), chemical and mechanical. The sum of the effects determines the therapeutic (physiological) effect of mineral waters.
  - Temperature (thermal) effect.
    The temperature effect of medicinal water on the body when taking baths is its strongest and most important property. Cold mineral waters with a temperature of up to 20°C, due to their good thermal conductivity, in contact with the human body, take away heat from it, quickly relieve fatigue, tiredness, and apathy. Cold medicinal food water enhances intestinal function. Warm waters with a temperature of 20-37°C, on the contrary, quickly release heat to the body, having a physically beneficial effect on it.
  - Chemical exposure.
    Chemical irritation is one of the main and long-lasting effects of mineral waters on the body.
    
    Mineral water is used for internal use(the so-called drinking treatment) and externally (for baths, bathing, showers carried out in balneological hospitals, in medicinal pools, as well as for inhalation and rinsing for diseases of the nasopharynx and upper respiratory tract, for irrigation for gynecological diseases, etc.).
    
    In balneology, gastric lavage and irrigation, the introduction of mineral water directly into the rectum, transduodenal intestinal lavage, mineral water enemas, drip enemas, intestinal baths, siphon and underwater intestinal lavages, etc. are used. All these methods are most often combined with drinking treatment.
    
    Mineral waters can be introduced into the patient’s body orally through the mouth, through the rectum, and rarely parenterally (subcutaneously, intramuscularly, and even intravenously).
    
    Treatment with mineral waters has a beneficial effect on the nerve endings and circulatory system, improves metabolic processes, the activity of the gastrointestinal tract and other internal organs.
    
    The intensity of external chemical exposure increases when taking baths with increased mineralization of water. In mineral waters it should not exceed 12-15 g/l. For example, the mineralization of the Kislovodsk Narzan varies from 1.5 to 6 g/l, the waters of Essentuki does not exceed 9 g/l.
    
    The same mineral water has a beneficial effect on the human body in various diseases. This is explained by the presence of various salts, trace elements and gases in its composition. For example, salt-alkaline waters such as Essentuki, Zheleznovodsk and Chelkar are a unique combination of two types of waters that have opposite physiological effects. These waters are equally useful for stomach diseases, both with high and low gastric acidity.
    
    The therapeutic activity of many mineral waters is associated with the presence of microelements in their composition - Fe, As, Co, I, Br, organic acids, etc. The gas composition of mineral springs is of important balneological significance. Particularly valuable are waters saturated with carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and radon.
  - Mechanical impact.
    The mechanical effect of mineral waters is associated with the pressure of its mass on the body (baths, showers, swimming). This effect can be enhanced by rubbing and directing water under a certain pressure (Charcot's shower).
  - Physiological effect of mineral water components on the human body.
    The effect of mineral waters is determined by the composition of their chemical elements and compounds (salts and ions). Waters of complex composition have a multifaceted effect on the body. Strengthening or decreasing their effect depends on the method of administration.
    - Chlorine affects the excretory function of the kidneys.
    - Sulfates in combination with calcium, sodium or magnesium can reduce gastric secretion and its activity.
    - Bicarbonates stimulate the secretory activity of the stomach.
    - Potassium and sodium salts maintain the necessary pressure in the tissue and interstitial fluids of the body. Potassium affects changes in the heart and central nervous system, sodium retains water in the body.
    - Calcium can enhance the contractile force of the heart muscle, improve immunity, have an anti-inflammatory effect, and affect bone growth. Hot calcium waters help with stomach ulcers and gastritis.
    - Magnesium is well absorbed by the body, helps reduce spasms of the gallbladder, lowers cholesterol levels in the blood, and has a beneficial effect on the nervous system.
    - Iodine activates the function of the thyroid gland and participates in the processes of resorption and recovery.
    - Bromine enhances inhibitory processes, normalizing the function of the cerebral cortex.
    - Fluoride: A lack of fluoride in the body leads to the destruction of bones, particularly teeth.
    - Manganese has a beneficial effect on sexual development and enhances protein metabolism.
    - Copper helps iron pass into hemoglobin.
    - Iron is part of the structure of hemoglobin; its deficiency in the body leads to anemia.
    - Carbon dioxide mineral waters affect the metabolism in the body, improving it. Carbon dioxide absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract enhances respiratory activity and increases muscle tone.
    - Hydrogen sulfide mineral waters are used mainly in the form of baths. Hydrogen sulfide has a positive effect on blood vessels and the central nervous system. It also affects the glands that secrete hormones: adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thyroid gland.
    - Hydrocarbonate (alkaline) waters increase the body's alkaline reserves. Under their influence, the content of hydrogen ions in the body decreases. Alkaline waters normalize the functioning of the stomach; they are used mainly for the treatment of gastritis with increased secretion and acidity of gastric juice. These waters are also used for liver diseases, in particular, for the treatment of biliary dyskinesia. Alkaline waters are also used to treat gout and diabetes.
    - Hydrocarbonate-calcium-magnesium waters affect protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism. They are used for chronic inflammatory diseases of the stomach, intestines and liver, peptic ulcers, obesity and diabetes.
    - Hydrocarbonate-chloride-sodium (salt-alkaline) waters can be recommended for patients with increased and decreased secretion of gastric juice. They are used for chronic diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, biliary dyskinesia, chronic diseases of the liver and gall bladder, and metabolic disorders. They have a beneficial effect on obesity, gout, and diabetes. It is not recommended to drink such waters if you have kidney or urinary tract diseases. Waters of this type include Essentuki No. 17 and Semigorskaya.
    - Sodium chloride water stimulates the secretion of gastric juice. They are used for diseases of the stomach with reduced secretion of gastric juice. For edema of various origins, these waters are contraindicated; they are not recommended for increased acidity of gastric juice, kidney disease, pregnancy, or allergies.
    - Calcium chloride waters reduce the permeability of vascular walls, have a hemostatic effect, increase urine output, improve liver function, and have a beneficial effect on the nervous system.
    - Sulfate waters are choleretic and laxative. They are used for diseases of the liver and biliary tract, obesity and diabetes.
    - Chloride-sulfate waters have a choleretic and laxative effect. They are used for diseases of the stomach with insufficient secretion of gastric juice, with simultaneous damage to the liver and bile ducts.
    - Hydrocarbonate-sulfate waters have an effect that inhibits gastric secretion, are choleretic and laxative. Drinking these waters improves bile formation and pancreatic function. They are used for gastritis with high acidity, peptic ulcers and liver diseases.
- Indications for internal intake of mineral waters
  Indications for drinking treatment with mineral waters are quite wide.
  
  Drinking mineral waters helps eliminate or mitigate painful disorders and improve the functions of individual organs and systems of the body. Drinking treatment is most effective for diseases of the gastrointestinal tract: chronic gastritis, gastroduodenitis, peptic ulcers, enteritis, colitis, enterocolitis, chronic hepatitis, cholecystitis, cholelithiasis, chronic pancreatitis, diseases of the operated stomach, postcholecystectomy syndrome, etc. The disease must be inactive and in remission.
  
  Drinking treatment is also indicated for diseases of the metabolism and endocrine organs (obesity, diabetes, gout), and finally, for diseases of the genitourinary organs (pyelonephritis, cystitis, urolithiasis, prostatitis).
  
  In some cases, treatment with mineral waters is indicated for diseases of the cardiovascular system: in the recovery period after a myocardial infarction, for hypertension, and for atherosclerosis.
  
  Some resorts have developed methods for treating chronic diseases with mineral waters. respiratory system, neurological diseases, diseases of the musculoskeletal system, etc.
- Contraindications to taking mineral waters
  - Drinking treatment with mineral waters is contraindicated in acute gastrointestinal diseases, as well as during exacerbation of inflammatory diseases of the stomach and intestines, which are accompanied by vomiting, bleeding and severe pain. Mineral waters should be taken with caution if you have diarrhea. In these cases, water with low mineralization is accepted.
  - You cannot carry out a course of drinking treatment for diseases of the digestive tract with difficulty in the free passage of food: with cicatricial narrowing of the esophagus, pylorus of the stomach or duodenal bulb, with significant prolapse or distension of the stomach.
  - You should not drink bicarbonate water if your urine is alkaline.
  - Treatment with mineral waters is contraindicated for acute infectious diseases, malignant tumors, decompensated cardiovascular failure, and acute cerebrovascular accidents.
  Cautions when using mineral waters:
  - Many mineral waters, due to their pleasant taste and ability to quench thirst, are widely used as table waters and are sold without restrictions in the retail chain. However, persons suffering from diseases of the digestive system, cardiovascular and urinary systems, as well as metabolic disorders, should not use medicinal table and medicinal mineral waters without consulting a doctor.
  - Improper use of mineral waters can lead to unwanted, often serious, complications.
- Rules for drinking mineral waters
  Drinking mineral waters is effective in combination with therapeutic nutrition. It is advisable to carry out treatment with mineral waters together with other health-improving activities (physiotherapeutic procedures, physical therapy). In this case, the effect of treatment will be significantly higher.
  
  Treatment with mineral waters directly at the resort is more effective than at home. This is not explained by a deterioration in the quality of water when it spills, but by the simultaneous effect on the patient of a complex complex of sanatorium-resort treatment: regime, absence of irritating and stressful factors, change of environment and climate (so-called geographical stress), physical activity, additional medical procedures, positive emotional background, etc.
  
  The effect of drinking treatment with mineral water depends not only on the correct choice of water, but also on the rules of its intake (dose, frequency, connection with food intake), temperature, etc., which determine the different effects of the same water. Therefore, drinking treatment with mineral water (especially at home) should be carried out only as prescribed by a doctor, in strict accordance with his instructions. If mineral water prescribed by a doctor is not available for sale, it can be replaced with another that is similar in chemical composition and effect, being sure to follow the procedure for taking it prescribed by the doctor.
  - General rules for treatment with mineral waters
    - Mineral waters are drunk in their natural form, without mixing them with other waters, with the exception of concentrated waters, which are diluted with fresh water to avoid their irritating effect on the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines.
    - For almost all diseases, you need to drink mineral water slowly, in small sips. This method of drinking is especially indicated for patients with reduced gastric secretion, when a long-term effect on the gastric mucosa and the receptors embedded in it is necessary in order to stimulate its secretory work. Drinking quickly is indicated when drinking water that has a laxative effect. The action of mineral water in these cases should develop in the intestines. When drinking mineral water slowly, its temperature may decrease, so if drinking is prescribed hot water, the patient, having drunk part of the contents of the glass, can replace the remainder with a new portion of hot water. In case of a stomach ulcer and increased acidity of gastric juice, water should be drunk in large sips, in one gulp, to avoid prolonged irritation of the gastric mucosa and to facilitate the rapid transition of mineral water from the stomach to the intestines, from where it should inhibit the secretion of gastric juice.
    - If mineral water contains a lot of gases, and their introduction into the body is undesirable (flatulence, increased acidity gastric juice, etc.), excess gas can be removed by heating water.
    - Treatment with mineral water is incompatible with drinking alcohol. If possible, smoking should also be avoided, since nicotine is a potent irritant and its effect is opposite to that of medicinal water.
  - What mineral water and what temperature to drink
    The choice of water depends on the nature of the disease and is determined by the doctor.
    
    Temperature is an important healing factor. The temperature of the water received may depend on the disease. If the water temperature is above 50-55C, it needs to be cooled, and cold water must be heated. In large resorts near the springs where mineral water is released, they resort to mechanized heating using devices with steam-water or electric heating. Typically, mineral water with a temperature of 10-15 to 45-50°C is used for drinking treatment. Most often it is recommended to drink warm water (31-40°C).
    - If you have intestinal cramps, you should drink hot water.
    - In case of chronic gastritis with reduced secretory function, atonic constipation, to enhance peristalsis, as well as, if necessary, to increase urination, it is necessary to drink water at a temperature of 20–30°C.
    - For diseases of the liver and gall bladder cold water You can't drink.
  - What is the single and daily dose of mineral water for this patient?
    - The attending physician must, depending on the characteristics of the mineral water, the nature of the disease, its severity, and the patient’s condition, decide on the size of the single and daily dose, and the number of doses during the day. From correct resolution These issues determine the effect of treatment.
    - The size of a single dose can vary from 1 tbsp. l. up to 1-2 glasses. Medicinal waters containing large quantities of substances with pronounced forms of action require very careful dosage. Laxative waters with strong mineralization also require careful dosage.
    - The daily dose of mineral water is usually 600–900 ml, and for diseases of the urinary tract, when six doses of water are prescribed, up to 1200–1500 ml.
    - Low- and medium-mineralized mineral waters are often prescribed in 200-250 ml or 400-500 ml per dose; they should be drunk in two doses with an interval of 15-30 minutes between doses.
    - In case of cardiovascular diseases with unstable compensation, with atony of the stomach, or a violation of its evacuation ability, drinking treatment begins with 1/4, 1/3 or 1/2 glass and only as you get used to the water do you move on to the full dose.
  - Frequency of intake and its distribution throughout the day, connection between water intake and food intake
    - The frequency of taking medicinal water, as well as its daily dose, depends on individual characteristics the patient, on the nature of the mineral water and on the tasks that the doctor sets for himself.
    - Mineral water should be taken before, during or after meals.
    - In order to influence kidney function and metabolism, it is better to drink mineral water in the morning, on an empty stomach. It quickly enters the intestines, being absorbed, it enters the blood in a less altered form than in the conditions of the small intestine being overcrowded with food.
    - In cases of gastrointestinal diseases, drinking mineral water is timed to coincide with meals. And drinking water is most often done 3 times a day: in the morning on an empty stomach, before lunch and before dinner.
    - With reduced secretion of the stomach, to activate the activity of the digestive glands, it is usually customary to drink mineral water 15-30 minutes before meals.
    - With normal gastric secretion, drink water 45-60 minutes before meals. And with increased secretion - 1-1.5 hours before meals.
    - If there is increased secretion of gastric juice, water can be taken with meals.
    - If gastric motility is impaired, then water should be taken 2-2.5 hours before meals.
    - For heartburn and stomach pain, you should drink alkaline water after meals, 0.25-0.3 glasses every 15 minutes.
    - In case of metabolic disorders in combination with urinary tract diseases, it is allowed to drink water, except for the three main meals, and after meals, and the total number of water intakes per day can be increased to 5-6 times.
  - What is the duration of the hydrotherapy course?
    - The duration of treatment with mineral waters is from 3–4 to 5–6 weeks. Longer courses are not recommended, as they can lead to disruption of water-salt metabolism: the salts contained in the human body will be washed out and replaced with salts of mineral water.
    - If the underlying disease worsens or if any other diseases occur for which drinking treatment is contraindicated, the course of treatment must be temporarily interrupted.
    - At home, the course of drinking treatment is usually 30-35 days.
    - Treatment with bottled water can be carried out 2-3 times a year with an interval of 4-6 months.
  - Place of receiving mineral water: at the source, in medical institution or at home
    - When drinking treatment at resorts that have their own mineral water sources, as a rule, they drink water from the source. It has been established that the water obtained from the source at its long-term storage, especially in open containers, undergoes denaturation. It loses its temperature and the gas it contains. In addition, shifts occur in its entire composition, complete equilibrium is disrupted, and salts precipitate. The water becomes cloudy, loses its natural taste, and this affects its medicinal properties Oh.
    - When bottled mineral water is specially saturated carbon dioxide, which should prevent air from entering the bottle, prolonged contact with which leads to the loss of the healing properties of water.
    - It is recommended to store mineral water bottles in a horizontal position. The shelf life of bottled waters is usually 1 year, for ferrous waters - 4 months, for waters containing organic substances (such as naftusya) - 1 week. During the specified storage periods, bottled mineral waters retain their natural composition and have the same biological and therapeutic effect on the body as the waters taken at the resort, directly from the source.

The goal of the state program for the development of agriculture and regulation of markets for agricultural products, raw materials and food for 2013–2020 is to ensure food independence of Russia within the parameters set by the doctrine of food security of the Russian Federation, approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of January 30, 2010 No. 120 “On approval of the food security doctrine of the Russian Federation." The program defines accelerated import substitution in relation to meat, milk, vegetables, seed potatoes and fruit and berry products; increasing the competitiveness of Russian agricultural products in the domestic and foreign markets; reproduction and increasing the efficiency of use of land and other resources in agriculture, as well as greening production.

Over the past decades, at the turn of the century, there has been a process of decline in soil fertility. At the same time, the increased rate of decline in the main indicator of soil fertility - humus - is of particular concern.

According to the regional station of the Samara agrochemical service, by 2012, rich chernozems had disappeared in the Samara region. Compared to 1986, the percentage of soils with high humus content decreased from 16.1% to 10.9% and from 49.7% to 45.6% with average humus content, and the areas of very weakly and weakly humus soils with low organic matter content increased significantly - by (9.3%).

To maintain humus at the original level, it is necessary to add 5–7 tons of manure to the soil annually in rainfed conditions, 8–10 tons per hectare during irrigation, and 70–80 kg/ha of a.m. mineral fertilizers.

The production of mineral fertilizers is dictated by two main factors. This is, on the one hand, the rapid growth of the planet's population, and on the other, limited land resources suitable for growing agricultural crops. In addition, soils suitable for agriculture have become depleted, and the natural method of their restoration requires too long a period of time.

The production volumes of each type of fertilizer have not changed for many years. Thus, nitrogen makes up 48% of total production, potassium – 34% and phosphorus – 18%.

Nitrogen fertilizers are produced at 25 enterprises in the Russian Federation, in addition, ammonium sulfate is produced by some coke plants. The leading position in the production of nitrogen fertilizers is occupied by Nevinnomyssk Azot OJSC (Stavropol Territory) and NAC Azot OJSC (Novomoskovsk Tula region). Both enterprises are part of the EuroChem holding and provide it with a 22% share in the Russian production of nitrogen fertilizers.

OJSC Togliattiazot (Samara region) is a modern enterprise (built in 1974). The company's production capacity allows the production of ammonia 3 million tons per year, urea - 1 million tons, liquid carbon dioxide - 2 million tons, dry ice - 2.5 thousand tons, urea-formaldehyde resin - 6 thousand tons, etc.

The Russian Federation's share in global production of phosphate fertilizers is 6.5%. Phosphorus fertilizers in Russia are produced at 19 enterprises, the total capacity of which is about 4.5 million tons.

The main producers of phosphate fertilizers in Russia are the following enterprises: Ammofos OJSC (Cherepovets, Vologda Region), Meleuzovskoe Minudobreniya Production Association JSC (Republic of Bashkortostan), Phosphorit OJSC (Kingisepp, Leningrad Region), Phosphorit OJSC (Kingisepp, Leningrad Region), OJSC Balakovo Mineral Fertilizers" (Saratov region), OJSC "Voskresensk Mineral Fertilizers" (Moscow region).

In the production of potash fertilizers, the main costs are associated with ore mining, and therefore the location of Silvinit OJSC (Solikamsk) and Uralkali OJSC (Berezniki) directly near the Verkhnekamsk deposit has a positive effect on the development of production of this type of fertilizer.

The total world production of mineral fertilizers is characterized by a slow but stable annual growth of 3–4%. In 2014, about 184 million tons were produced worldwide.

Fertilizer is one of the main factors in the intensification of agriculture, since without them it is impossible to conduct agriculture rationally. The use of fertilizers allows you to optimize plant nutrition, regulate the speed and direction of growth processes, the size and quality of the harvest, increase the resistance of plants to adverse conditions, and influence the reproduction of soil fertility. Without the application of mineral fertilizers, it is impossible to grow food and feed in sufficient quantities.

On chernozem soils In the Samara region, nitrogen fertilizers are most effective. In studies of the Samara State Agricultural Academy, 1 kg of nitrogen pays for itself in grain yield
winter wheat from 10 to 26 kg/ha. Increases in grain yield from phosphorus fertilizers range from 18 to 26%. As a result of significant differences in soil-climatic, agrotechnical and material-technical conditions, the effectiveness of fertilizers even for the same crop varies greatly among individual farms and regions.

As for the optimal parameters for the use of mineral fertilizers, it is necessary to focus on the recommended zonal doses for the Samara region, taking into account the agrochemical properties of the soil. For example, to obtain a grain yield of winter wheat of 4 t/ha and reproduce soil fertility, it is necessary to add 30 t of manure and 120 kg/ha of nitrogen and phosphorus, and 30–60 kg/ha of potassium.

In accordance with this, it is necessary to create flexible systems of modern technologies, taking into account the characteristics of each variety and each specific field.

The importance of fertilizer properties

Obtaining the maximum possible crop yield directly depends on the action of a complex of numerous factors, among which fertilizers play an important role.

For each mineral fertilizer supplied for agriculture, the state standard (technical conditions) establishes a certain
a set of requirements: for example, appearance and color, nutrient concentration (no less), moisture content (no more), particle size (granules).
Fertilizers must contain aggressive impurities within acceptable limits - free acidity, active chlorine, fluorine compounds, biuret, heavy salts
metals Failure to comply with any indicators from certain GOST quality characteristics for a particular fat is not allowed.

The requirements established by the standard are not accidental. They contribute to the high quality of many technological works, including the transportation of fertilizer, the preservation of the properties of fertilizer during storage, the quality of application, and a high fertilizing effect. Therefore, successful work ensuring the safety
quality of fertilizers on the farm, efficient use them with minimal labor and money, ensuring maximum increases in productivity without damage to nature and environment requires deep knowledge of all the properties of fats. These include not only the form of the nutrients contained, but also
physical, physicochemical and chemical properties.

Each mineral fertilizer is distinguished by a certain set of properties determined by the nature of the salt, depending on the technology of production, forms of supply of fertilizer, which can change during the period from production (receipt) to application to the soil. Knowledge of the characteristics of individual fertilizers is the key to the safety without loss of the fertilizers themselves, their nutrients, the strength of the granules, and flowability. A specialist must know how to create the necessary storage regime, when it is best to apply this fertilizer, the possibility of combining it with other fertilizers, the ability to add manure, peat, and other organic fertilizers. Taking into account the various properties of mineral fertilizers, knowing their composition, will allow you to determine which crop is best applied to, choose the application method to obtain the highest effect, and achieve the best crop quality indicators.

The use of individual fertilizers also requires knowledge of many physical, physicomechanical characteristics, such as hygroscopicity and caking, granulometric composition and size of granules, their strength and flowability, a number of others, including free acidity or alkalinity, undesirable impurities.
It is necessary to take into account those natural processes that can occur during long-term storage (moistening, volatilization or leaching of nutrients
substances, loss of flowability), fire, explosion hazard. This will allow you to determine the choice of warehouse, the placement of individual packages in it, the height of the pile, the stack, etc.
safe storage conditions. The same information is necessary when choosing certain fertilizer spreaders in the field.

Range and main properties of mineral fertilizers

The chemical industry of the Russian Federation produces and supplies a wide range of mineral fertilizers to the domestic market.

Mineral fertilizers are industrial or fossil products containing nutrients for plant growth and development and used to increase soil fertility. Nutrient elements contained in the plant body in significant quantities (from hundredths to whole percent) are called macroelements - N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S.

Types of fertilizers– one-component: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium; complex - complex, complexly mixed, mixed and fertilizers with microelements. Among the species there are different forms.

Fertilizer forms:
nitrogen - nitrate, ammonium, ammonia, ammonium-nitrate, amide, liquid, slow-acting;
phosphorus - soluble, semi-soluble, insoluble;
potassium - chlorine-containing, sulfuric acid.

Taking into account the level of natural fertility of fields and other agricultural lands, the production plan of agricultural enterprises, the availability of organic fertilizers, the size of the planned harvests, as well as the further growth of agrochemical soil indicators, farm specialists calculate the annual need for fertilizers.

A batch of fertilizers imported to the farm is accompanied by a consignment note indicating the name of the product, the weight of the cargo and a copy of the passport-certificate characterizing the compliance of the fertilizer with the requirements of GOST or TU for quality.

Fertilizer packaging. Non-hygroscopic (potassium chloride, ammonium sulfate, superphosphate) and low-hygroscopic fertilizers supplied to agriculture from
loaded without containers (in bulk). This allows you to significantly reduce the cost of disposable containers and completely mechanize loading and unloading operations at all levels from the supplier plant - temporary storage (rail warehouses) - to loading them into sowing machines and applying them to the fields.

Highly hygroscopic fertilizers (saltpetre) are supplied in polyethylene or 5-6-layer bitumen bags weighing about 50 kg.

In recent years, enterprises have been delivering supplies in soft specialized containers, which, in conditions of only approximately 50% supply in standard warehouses, makes it possible to sharply reduce losses of mineral fertilizers, ensuring high level mechanization of loading and unloading operations with them.

There are soft reusable containers (MC), made of rubber and cord, with a capacity of about 1.7 cubic meters. m (fertilizer weight – up to 2 tons);
disposable use (MKR) - polyethylene container, volume about 1 cubic meter. m (fertilizer weight up to 1 t); as well as negotiable ones - limited service life
(MKO) - polyethylene fabric with a polyethylene coating, its working volume is up to 0.85 cubic meters. m with a carrying capacity of about 1 ton of fertilizer mass.

Containers are stored in open areas (near a warehouse or directly in the field), stacked in 1–2 tiers. For loading and unloading operations on the farm, it is necessary to have a tractor container loader or a self-loader with a jib crane.

Urea, ammophos, diammophos, double superphosphate, potassium chloride, as well as nitrophos, nitrophoska, diammophos and other granular complex fertilizers are supplied in soft containers of the MKR type. Supplier plants guarantee the quality of mineral fertilizers determined by GOST (TU), as a rule, for 6 months from the date of manufacture of the product. Therefore, if there is a lack of standard storage containers, fertilizers should not be stored in excess of their annual requirement.