History of Russia XVII century
"Russia in the 17th century"
Choose the correct answer.
1. The uprising led by S. Razin took place in:
a) 1648-1650 b) 1662-1664
c) 1670-1671 d) 1676-1781
2. A new class for Russia:
a) merchants c) archers
b) industrialists d) Cossacks
3. Personally free peasants who owned communal lands and bore state duties were called:
a) monastery c) black-mown
b) palace d) landowners
4. The patriarch carried out the church reform:
a) Philaret c) Joasaph
b) Joasaph I d) Nikon
5. During the 17th century. happened:
a) strengthening the role of Zemsky Sobors in the life of the state
b) finalization of serfdom
c) reforming the order system
d) expansion of the powers of the Boyar Duma
6. The “Rebellious Age” is called:
a) the entire 16th century
b) second half of the 16th century.
c) the first half of the 17th century.
d) the entire 17th century
7. Russia’s decision to accept Ukraine led to:
a) war with Turkey
b) a new war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
c) popular uprisings
d) changes in the governance of the country
8. During the 17th century. The following territories were not included in Russia:
a) Eastern Siberia
b) Far East
c) Right Bank Ukraine
d) Left Bank Ukraine
9. Of the following, he was a Russian pioneer:
a) I. Vygovsky
b) B. I. Morozov
c) L. Ushakov
d) E. P. Khabarov
10. One of the most striking architectural monuments of the 17th century. is:
a) Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin
b) Chamber of Facets
c) St. Basil's Cathedral
d) Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye
11. Choose the correct answers:
New features in the economic development of the country in the 17th century:
a) strengthening the role of corvée and quitrent
b) development of farming
c) transformation of craft into small-scale production
d) development of manufactures
e) peasant handicrafts
f) formation of an all-Russian market
g) widespread use of hired labor
h) urban growth
i) the formation of large feudal land ownership 12. Establish the correct correspondence:
12. Set the correct match:
1) Mikhail a) conclusion of the Peace of Zborov with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Romanov b) Smolensk War
2) Alexey c) conflict between the church and secular authorities Avvakum
Mikhailovich d) Cathedral Code
3) archpriest e) movement of the Old Believers Khmelnytsky
4) Bogdan e) the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
g) Copper riot
13. Set the correct match:
1) 1648-1650 a) Russian-Turkish war
2) 1653-1655 b) Russian-Polish war
3) 1654-1667 c) the beginning of church reform
4) 1676-1681 d) urban uprisings
14. Insert in place of the blanks:
The privileged groups of the Russian population in the 17th century were service people, who included the children of boyars, and ________, as well as archers. This group also included __________. State duties were borne by the townspeople and _________.
15. Restore the sequence of events:
a) church council
b) Salt riot
c) Smolensk War
d) Copper riot
e) Pereyaslav Rada
16. Who are we talking about?
“Deeply religious, lively, impressionable, capable of being a true friend and a dangerous enemy, but at the same time strict, and sometimes humbled those who were guilty with his own hands, merciful, even weak towards his “close people” and “vengeful” towards his enemies, soft and cruel, author of the funny Uryadnik and founder of the Secret Order, book reader and poet"
17. What are we talking about?
“...The whole people cried out: we will, under the Eastern Orthodox Tsar, die with a strong hand in our pious faith, rather than the hater of Christ get enough of the filth. Then Colonel Teterya of Pereyaslavl, walking around in a circle, asked in all directions: is this all you please? The whole people shouted: all unanimously. Then the hetman said: come on. May the Lord our God strengthen us under his royal strong hand...”
18. By what principle is the series formed?
Solovetsky uprising; the schismatic movement during the Moscow uprising of 1682; performance on the Don in the 70-80s. XVII century
19. What is extra in the row?
“About Shemyakin’s court”, “About Ersha Ershovich”; “The Tale of Uliani Osoryina”; "The Tale of Thomas and Erem"
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education and State Pedagogical University them. K.D. Ushinsky
Faculty of Physics and Mathematics Department distance learning
in history
topic: Russia in the 17th century
Completed:
student of group 212
Yaroslavl - 2010
Introduction
century is one of the most difficult periods of Russian history. A comprehensive political crisis struck society at the beginning of the century, feudal exploitation intensified, the legalization of serfdom was completed, changes in the church led to a deep social split, popular riots of unprecedented force shook the country, the monarchy evolved towards absolutism, feudal land tenure developed, and the beginnings of bourgeois relations took shape. The old came into conflict with the new, and the need for change was brewing in society.
I was attracted to this topic because of the intensity of socio-economic events that occurred in this “rebellious age”. After all, it was in the 17th century. Russia has entered a new period in its history, characterized by the beginning of the formation of an all-Russian market and the emergence of elements of bourgeois relations.
The purpose of the work is to identify and consider the main directions of development of Russia in the 17th century, the most important social upheavals of the population of that century, to clarify the socio-economic situation of the country at the turn of the 18th century, the “century of palace coups”.
1. TROUBLES IN RUSSIA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 17TH CENTURY
1 False Dmitry I
In 1602, the monk of the Kremlin Miracle Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, a native of a noble family, later a slave of the Romanov boyars, fled from Russia to Poland. In Poland, he declared himself the miraculously saved Tsarevich Dmitry.
Asking for help in seizing the Moscow throne, False Dmitry promised the Polish king to cede the Chernigov-Seversky lands to him and introduce Catholicism to Russia. The impostor did not receive official assistance, but the king allowed the Polish nobles to join his army. Polish magnates supported False Dmitry with money, especially Yuri Mnishek, whose daughter became the “prince’s” bride. The Russians also willingly joined the impostor, especially the Cossacks, who for various reasons (due to hunger, fearing persecution after the Khlopk uprising, etc.) fled to Poland.
In the fall of 1604, False Dmitry invaded Russia with only about 4 thousand Cossacks and Poles. Despite failures in initial clashes with government forces, his forces quickly grew due to the influx of dissatisfied people. Service people went over to his side, cities opened their gates without a fight.
Boris Godunov died from shocks in April 1605. His 16-year-old son Fedor was overthrown and killed. In June 1605, “Tsar Dmitry Ivanovich” entered Moscow.
We can say that False Dmitry captured Moscow on the crest of the beginning civil war. In this situation, people willingly believed in the miraculous salvation of Dmitry - the return of the rightful king promised an end to disasters.
Having ascended the throne, False Dmitry behaved unusually for a Russian Tsar. He personally accepted petitions, walked around the city alone, convinced the boyars of the need to educate the people, proposed sending nobles abroad to receive an education, did not observe sedate palace customs, and dressed in European dress. Perhaps, if his reign had lasted longer, Russia would have begun to draw closer to Western Europe.
But False Dmitry lost his support, since by his actions he alienated all political forces. He did not fulfill his promises to the king: there was no talk of territorial concessions or the introduction of Catholicism.
The king did not even allow the construction of Catholic churches. The Poles were unhappy with him. The Orthodox clergy feared a tsar who disdained Orthodoxy, wore European dress, and was married to a Catholic. The service people were offended by the closeness of the Poles and Cossacks to the king. The peasants were deceived in their hopes for the restoration of St. George's Day.
In May 1606, shortly after his wedding with Marina Mnishek, False Dmitry was overthrown and killed.
2 Vasily Shuisky
The Zemsky Sobor elected boyar Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, who led the conspiracy against the impostor, as the new king.
Upon ascending the throne, V.I. Shuisky swore allegiance to his subjects for the first time - he gave a “kissing record”, promising not to impose disgraces without a boyar court, not to listen to false denunciations, not to persecute the relatives of the disgraced. Legal guarantees extended not only to the boyars and nobility, but even to black people. If Ivan the Terrible considered all his subjects to be serfs, that is, slaves, then the cross-kissing record for the first time in Russian history affirmed the principle of an agreement between the tsar and his subjects. The “Kissing Record” reflected the weakening of royal power due to the end of the legitimate dynasty and its increased dependence on the “land” - society.
Election of V.I. Shuisky's reign could not prevent the escalation of the civil war. Cossacks, many peasants, townspeople and even service people opposed the oath to the new tsar, believing in a new miraculous salvation of “Dmitry”. Such sentiments especially spread in the southern outskirts, whose population was afraid of V. Shuisky’s revenge for helping False Dmitry I take control of Moscow.
3 Bolotnikov's Rebellion
In 1606, the rebel Cossacks were led by Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov, a former military slave, Prince. Telyatevsky. Having been captured by the Crimeans during one of his campaigns, he was sold into slavery and spent a number of years as a rower on a galley. Having been freed, Bolotnikov returned to his homeland through Germany and Poland. In Poland, he met the next contender for the role of “Tsar Dmitry” - M. Molchanov and was sent by him to Russia as the chief governor. From Putivl he led the rebels to Moscow. Along the way, Bolotnikov’s army united with detachments of Ryazan and Tula servicemen under the command of P. Lyapunov and I. Pashkov.
Socially, Bolotnikov’s army was heterogeneous - peasants, Cossacks, serfs, service people. All of them were united by faith in the rightful Tsar Dmitry. However, these people’s own interests did not coincide, and were often opposite.
Having occupied Kaluga and Kashira, Bolotnikov approached Moscow at the end of October and began its siege, camping in the village of Kolomenskoye. The siege lasted more than a month. During this time, the leaders of the rebel nobles became convinced that Bolotnikov was speaking on behalf of the impostor. In addition, in the camp of the rebels, contradictions grew between the Cossacks and the service people. All this led to the transition of the nobles to Shuisky's side. In the decisive battle near Kolomenskoye in December 1606, Bolotnikov was defeated and forced to retreat to Kaluga. There he united with the troops of the self-proclaimed "Tsarevich Peter" - the Murom townsman Ilya Gorchakov ("Ileika Muromets"), posing as the son of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich. Bolotnikov and Gorchakov successfully repulsed the attacks of the tsarist troops several times, but in the end they were forced to retreat to Tula, which was besieged by Shuisky’s troops. The siege lasted more than three months. The rebels capitulated only after government troops built a dam on the river. Upe and flooded Tula. Shuisky promised to save the lives of the leaders of the uprising, but did not keep his word: Ileika Muromets was hanged, Bolotnikov was blinded, exiled to Kargopol and drowned there.
4 False Dmitry II
In 1608, a new impostor appeared near Moscow - False Dmitry II. He was sent by the Poles to Bolotnikov’s camp to strengthen the rebels’ shaken faith in “Tsar Dmitry.” However, he did not have time to connect with Bolotnikov and laid siege to Moscow, setting up camp in the village of Tushino near Moscow. His contemporaries nicknamed him the “Tushino thief.” In the Tushino camp there were Cossacks, peasants, serfs, service people, even noble boyars. However, the main role was played by the Poles, on whom the new impostor, unlike his talented predecessor, was completely dependent.
In September 1608, Polish troops besieged the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, but were unable to take it for 18 months.
Gradually, the authority of False Dmitry II began to decline. The robberies of the Cossacks and Poles alienated the population from the “Tushino thief”. The peasants began to create partisan detachments to fight the Tushins. However, Shuisky's government did not have the strength to defeat the Tushins.
Under these conditions, the tsar asked Sweden for help, promising to transfer to it the Korelsky volost, which Russia regained in the Treaty of Tyavzin in 1595. In 1609, the Russian troops of M.V. Skopin-Shuisky and the Swedish detachment of General Delagardi defeated the Tushins near Tver. But the Swedes avoided further assistance to Russia. To pay salaries to the Swedes, new taxes were introduced, which worsened the situation of the population and turned them against V.I. Shuisky.
In addition, Russia's appeal to Sweden for help gave Poland a reason for open intervention in Russia, because Poland and Sweden were at war.
5 Polish intervention
In September 1609, Polish troops invaded Russia and besieged Smolensk. King Sigismund recalled all Poles from the Tushino camp, which then disintegrated. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed.
In January 1610 M.V. Skopin-Shuisky liberated the Trinity-Sergius Monastery from the siege. But soon he died under mysterious circumstances. Rumor accused the tsar's brother and heir, Prince D.I., of his murder. Shuisky. Meanwhile, the troops of the Polish hetman S. Zolkiewski were approaching Moscow. In the battle near the village. Klushino near Mozhaisk, the tsarist commanders were defeated.
In this situation, in the summer of 1610, a group of boyars and nobles forced V.I. Shuisky to abdicate the throne and become a monk. Power passed into the hands of the "Seven Boyars".
Not wanting to again choose a tsar from among the boyars and trying to reconcile with the Poles, the seven-boyars turned to S. Zholkiewski with a proposal to call the son of the Polish king Vladislav to the Russian throne. (Previously, the Tushino boyars proposed the same thing). The Russian-Polish treaty confirmed the kissing sign of the cross and guaranteed compliance with Russian customs. Vladislav had to convert to Orthodoxy. Having concluded an agreement, the boyars allowed the Poles into Moscow, and the Russian embassy headed by F.N. went to Sigismund near Smolensk. Romanov. However, the king did not approve the agreement, not wanting his son to betray Catholicism.
The negotiations reached a dead end, and the Russian ambassadors found themselves in the position of prisoners. Moscow swore allegiance to Vladislav.
The time has come for anarchy in Russia. Each person decided for himself what power to recognize. The same lands were granted by different authorities to different people and, as a result, had several owners. This situation was intolerable. The solution was to convene a national militia to liberate Moscow.
6 First militia
In February 1611, the militia moved towards Moscow. It was headed by the "Council of the Whole Earth". The main role in the militia was played by the Cossacks under the leadership of Ataman I. Zarutsky and Prince D.T. Trubetskoy and the nobles, led by P. Lyapunov. The militia managed to capture the White City (the territory inside the current Boulevard Ring), but the Poles held Kitai Gorod and the Kremlin.
The siege dragged on. In the camp of the besiegers, contradictions grew between the nobles and the Cossacks. Adopted on June 30, 1611 on the initiative of P. Lyapunov, the “Sentence of the Whole Land” prohibited the appointment of Cossacks to positions in the management system and demanded that fugitive peasants and slaves be returned to their owners. This caused indignation among the Cossacks. Lyapunov was killed. In response, the nobles abandoned the militia, and it disintegrated.
June 1611 Smolensk fell. Sigismund announced that not Vladislav, but he himself would become the Russian Tsar. This meant that Russia would be included in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In July, the Swedes captured Novgorod and surrounding lands.
1.7 Second Militia
In the fall of 1611, at the call of the Nizhny Novgorod merchant elder K. Minin, the formation of the Second Militia began. The main role in it was played by the townspeople. Prince D.M. became the military leader of the militia. Pozharsky. Minin and Pozharsky headed the Council of the whole earth. Funds for arming the militia were obtained thanks to voluntary donations from the population and mandatory taxation on a fifth of the property. Yaroslavl became the center for the formation of the new militia.
In August 1612, the Second Militia united with the remnants of the First Militia, still besieging Moscow. At the end of August, the Russians did not allow the Polish hetman Chodkiewicz, who was coming to the aid of the garrison with a large convoy, to break into Moscow. At the end of October, Moscow was liberated.
8 Election of Mikhail Romanov to the throne
In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected a new tsar - Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. Formally, the Romanovs had the right to the throne as relatives of the previous dynasty: Mikhail’s grandfather, Nikita Romanovich Yuryev, was the brother of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife, Anastasia Romanovna. In fact, their election satisfied everyone.
N.R. Yuryev was close to Grozny, but was not part of the oprichnina, and was even considered an intercessor for the innocent. Therefore, both the former guardsmen and the former zemstvo saw the Romanovs as their own. Mikhail's father Fyodor Nikitich (after tonsure - Filaret) was in captivity in Tushino, but in fact was there in the position of an honored guest. The Tushins even called him patriarch.
Election of M.F. Romanov's accession to the kingdom was not accompanied by the signing of a document such as a "kissing record". Royal power again became unlimited.
9 End of the Troubles
At the end of the Time of Troubles, the country was in an extremely difficult situation. There was no strength to continue the war with the interventionists. In 1617, Russia concluded the Peace of Stolbovo with Sweden. Novgorod and some other cities captured by the Swedes were returned, but Ivangorod, Oreshek, Yam and Koporye remained in Swedish hands. Russia has finally lost access to Baltic Sea.
In 1618, the Deulin truce with Poland was concluded. Russia retained its independence, but lost Smolensk and the Chernigov-Seversky lands.
During the period of troubles, the relationship between the internal political crisis in Russia and external aggression is very clearly visible. There was an ideological crisis caused by the fall in the authority of the tsarist government and the shock of the traditional foundations of society.
Troubles are not only a time of crisis and disaster. This is also a time when various paths for further development opened up for the Russian state. Eventually alternative possibilities were not used, but still the Troubles testified that Russia was on the verge of renewal.
2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY
1 Agriculture and land tenure
In the 17th century The basis of the Russian economy was still agriculture, based on serf labor. Agricultural technology remained virtually unchanged for centuries, and labor remained unproductive. The increase in yields was achieved through extensive methods - mainly through the development of new lands. The cessation of the Crimean raids made it possible to fearlessly develop the territories of the modern Central Black Earth region, where the yield was twice as high as in the old arable areas.
The economy remained predominantly natural - the bulk of the products were produced "for oneself." Not only food, but also clothing, shoes, and household items were mostly produced on the peasant farm itself. The rent contributed by the peasants was used by the landowners to meet the needs of their families and servants.
At the same time, the growth of territory and differences in natural conditions gave rise to economic specialization in different regions of the country. Thus, the Black Earth Center and the Middle Volga region produced commercial grain, while the North, Siberia and the Don consumed imported grain.
Landowners, including the largest ones, almost did not resort to entrepreneurial farming, being content with collecting rent from the peasants. Feudal land tenure in the 17th century. continued to expand due to grants to serving people of black and palace lands. At the same time, according to the Code of 1649, the church lost the right to buy or accept new lands as deposits for the funeral of the soul.
1.2 Industry
Much more widely than in agriculture, new phenomena spread in industry. Its main form in the 17th century. craft remained. However, the nature of craft production has changed. In the 17th century Craftsmen increasingly worked not to order, but for the market. This type of craft is called small-scale production. Its spread was caused by the growth of economic specialization in various regions of the country. Thus, Pomorie specialized in wood products, the Volga region - in leather processing, Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk - in linen. Salt making (North) and iron production (Tula-Kashira region) were the first to acquire a small-scale commercial character, since these crafts depended on the availability of raw materials and could not develop everywhere.
In the 17th century Along with craft workshops, large enterprises began to appear. Some of them were built on the basis of division of labor and can be classified as manufactories. In others there was no division of labor, and they should be classified as simple cooperation.
The first Russian manufactories appeared in metallurgy. In 1636, A. Vinius, a native of Holland, founded an ironworks that produced cannons and cannonballs on government orders, and also produced household items for the market. Loans were provided to the plant, and palace peasants were assigned to it to perform auxiliary work (the main workers were hired workers). Following Vinius, other owners of metallurgical plants appeared.
Manufactures began to appear in light industry only at the very end of the 17th century. For the most part, they belonged to the state and produced products not for the market, but for the treasury or the royal court.
Manufacturing production, based on wage labor, is no longer a phenomenon of the feudal, but of the bourgeois order. The emergence of manufactories testified to the formation of capitalist elements in the Russian economy.
However, these were precisely the elements of the new, still extremely fragile. The number of manufacturing enterprises simultaneously operating in Russia until the end of the 17th century did not exceed 15. In Russian manufactories, along with hired workers, forced laborers also worked - convicts, palace artisans, and assigned peasants. Most of the manufactories were poorly connected to the market. Finally, at the beginning of the 18th century, during the era of Peter I, hired labor in Russian manufactories was completely replaced by forced labor for a long time.
Based on the growing specialization of small-scale crafts (and partly agriculture), the formation of an all-Russian market began. If in the 16th century and previously trade was carried out mainly within one district, but now trade relations began to be established throughout the country. The most important trading center was Moscow. Extensive trade transactions were carried out at fairs. The largest of them were Makaryevskaya near Nizhny Novgorod and Irbitskaya in the Urals.
Wholesale trade was in the hands of large merchants. The top of it consisted of guests, merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. They were freed from taxes, posad services, troop station, and had the right to acquire estates. Guests could even travel abroad on trade matters. (All other subjects of the Russian state, except merchants, were prohibited from traveling abroad). Retail trade was carried out by small shopkeepers or peddlers.
Russia conducted extensive foreign trade. The main demand for imported goods was from the royal court, the treasury, and the elite of the service people.
They traded with the countries of the East along the Caspian and Volga. Astrakhan was the center of eastern trade. Carpets, fabrics, especially silk were imported to Russia.
Russia imported metal products, cloth, paints, and wines from Europe. Russian exports included hemp, flax, furs, leather, lard and other agricultural and forestry products.
Trade with European countries was hampered by the lack of access to the Baltic and Black Seas. The only seaport in Russia was Arkhangelsk, which is under ice for 8 months of the year. It accounted for 3/4 of Russia's foreign trade turnover. They traded with the countries of Eastern Europe by land - through Smolensk, with Sweden - through Pskov and Novgorod. Foreign trade was mainly in the hands of foreign merchants, since the Russian merchants had neither ships, nor sufficient capital, nor the organization necessary for foreign trade operations. Foreign merchants also penetrated the Russian domestic market.
Under pressure from the merchants, the government adopted the Trade Charter in 1653, which replaced numerous trade duties with a single duty of 5% of the value of the goods. The duty on foreign merchants was increased to 6%, and when selling their goods not in Arkhangelsk, but within the country - 8%. In 1667, on the initiative of a prominent statesman A.L. Ordina - Nashchokin, the New Trade Charter was adopted. From now on, foreign merchants had to pay double duty for selling goods within Russia, could only conduct wholesale trade and sell their goods only to Russians. Trade in Russia between foreigners was prohibited. The New Trade Charter protected the Russian merchants from competition and increased treasury revenues. Thus, Russia's economic policy became protectionist. The heyday of protectionism occurred in the next era - the reign of Peter I.
1.4 The final establishment of serfdom
In the middle of the 17th century. has finally taken shape serfdom. The process of its formation has been going on since the 80s. XVI century, when reserved summers were introduced. In 1597, a 5-year search for fugitives was established (the so-called “fixed summer”). In 1607, V. Shuisky increased his term to 15 years. But in the conditions of the Troubles, this extension of the investigation could not be realized. During almost the entire reign of M.F. Romanov remained under investigation for 5 years. Service people persistently sought the abolition of “lesson years” and indefinite investigation. However, the government did not agree to this, fearing the discontent of the peasants. In addition, the increase in the duration of the investigation was disadvantageous to large landowners, in whose estates fugitives often took refuge. Only in 1645 was a 10-year investigation established.
However, the Salt Riot of 1648 frightened the government and forced it to accept the demands of the nobility. According to the “Conciliar Code” of 1649, “lesson summers” were abolished, and the investigation became indefinite. Harboring fugitives became punishable by fines. A fugitive who married was returned to the previous owner with his entire family, even if the other spouse was previously free or belonged to another owner. The peasant's property was recognized as the property of the landowner, and could, for example, be sold to pay his debts. From now on, serfs could no longer freely dispose of their own personalities: they lost the right to enter into servitude. All this meant the final establishment of serfdom in Russia.
Even more severe punishments were established for fugitive black and palace peasants, as well as for their harborers. This was explained by increased concern about paying state taxes - taxes.
The Code of 1649 actually enslaved the townspeople, attaching them to their places of residence. One of the slogans of the uprising of 1648 was the liquidation of white settlements - craft settlements around the city that belonged to secular feudal lords or the church. Craftsmen - Beloslobodchiki did not bear taxes. Since the amount of tax from the posad remained constant, the transition of each taxer to the white settlements meant an increase in tax for each posad person.
The Code of 1649, meeting the demands of the townspeople, included white settlements in the tax and forbade the townspeople from henceforth to leave their communities, becoming serfs, and even moving to other towns. The fugitive townspeople were ordered to be found and returned to their old places. Concealment of the townspeople was severely punished. The paradox of the situation is that the posads actually achieved their enslavement themselves. This is explained by the fact that Russian people of the 17th century. They did not yet realize freedom as an independent value and easily sacrificed it for the sake of a stable, protected life.
In the 17th century There is a contradiction in the economic and social life of Russia. On the one hand, elements of the bourgeois way of life are emerging, the first manufactories appear, and the formation of a market begins. On the other hand, Russia is finally becoming a feudal country, forced labor begins to spread to the sphere of industrial production. Russian society remained traditional, the gap from Europe was accumulating. At the same time, it was in the 17th century. the basis was prepared for the accelerated modernization of the Petrine era.
3. POLITICAL SYSTEM OF RUSSIA IN THE 17th century.
The political system of Russia underwent changes during the 17th century. significant changes, embarking on the path of formation of absolutism.
1 Zemsky Sobors
After the end of the Time of Troubles, a new dynasty appeared on the Russian throne, in need of strengthening its authority. If the great princes and kings from the Rurik dynasty could assert the originality and divine origin of their power (as Ivan IV did in correspondence with Kurbsky), then the Romanovs, elected to the throne, could only rely on the support of the “land.” That is why in the first ten years of their reign the Zemsky Sobors met almost continuously. However, as power strengthened and the dynasty became stronger, Zemsky Sobors were convened less and less often and decided mainly on foreign policy issues. In the middle of the 17th century, the Zemsky Sobor was convened in connection with the Salt Riot. The result of his activities was the Council Code of 1649. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653, which decided the issue of accepting Ukraine under the rule of Moscow, was the last. Subsequently, only representatives of certain segments of the population were convened.
In recent years, scholars have increasingly expressed the opinion that the importance of Zemsky Sobors in Russian history is exaggerated, that the participation of townspeople in them was irregular, and that of black-sown peasants was episodic. Many historians believe that the cathedrals were not so much class representation, but rather unique information meetings that allowed the authorities to learn about the mood in the country. In this regard, the definition of the Russian monarchy of the 17th century has been called into question. as "class-representative".
3.2 Boyar Duma
The Tsar ruled based on an advisory body - the Boyar Duma. The royal decrees began with the words " Great Sovereign indicated and the boyars sentenced." The Duma consisted of boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles and Duma clerks. All members of the Duma were appointed by the tsar. In the Duma, the proportion of nobles and clerks gradually increased, that is, people who came not from the aristocracy, but from middle-ranking service people and townspeople. The total number of the Duma grew, which negatively affected its efficiency. A number of important matters began to be decided bypassing the Duma, on the basis of discussion only with some close associates. The order of Secret Affairs, created under Alexei Mikhailovich, was not controlled by the Duma at all, but was subordinated directly to the tsar.
3 Order system
The role of orders in the management system of the 17th century. has increased. The number of orders has increased. Over the course of the entire century, more than 80 of them were known, and by the end of it, more than 40 had survived.
Orders were divided into temporary and permanent. Standing orders were divided into palace (managed the royal estates and served the royal court), patriarchal (managed the church estates and personal property of the patriarch) and state. State orders were divided into territorial (Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc.) and functional (nationwide).
The functional orders included the Ambassadorial Order (in charge of relations with foreign states), the Local Order (in charge of local distributions and land transactions), the Razryadny Order (in charge of the noble service, conducting military reviews, determining the suitability of serving people), the Robbery Order (in charge of combating robberies and state crimes) .
There were a number of national financial orders, including the order of the Great Treasury, which was in charge of trade and industry, and coinage.
A large group of nationwide orders dealt with military issues: the Streletsky, Pushkarsky, and Reitarsky orders were in charge of the corresponding branches of the military, the Pushechny order was in charge of the casting of cannons and cannonballs, and the Armory Chamber was in charge of the production of edged weapons.
With the development of the order system, the number of orderly people increased. In 1640 there were less than 900 of them, and by the end of the 17th century. - more than 3 thousand. The clerks and clerks who worked in the orders came from the townspeople, clergy, and merchants. Their careers depended not on nobility, but on personal merit. A professional management apparatus - bureaucracy - was formed.
The order system was imperfect. The functions of many orders were intertwined. Thus, regional orders themselves collected taxes in their subordinate territory, although the collection of taxes fell within the competence of financial orders. Many orders were carried out by the court, although judicial functions belonged to the Robbery Order. Judicial proceedings were not separated from administration. The multitude of orders and confusion with their responsibilities sometimes made it difficult to understand matters, giving rise to the famous “order red tape.” And yet, the growth of the order system meant the development of the administrative apparatus, which served strong support royal power.
4 Local control
The system of local government has also changed. After the abolition of feedings in the 50s. XVI century local power was concentrated in the hands of elected representatives of the local population: provincial and zemstvo elders, favorite heads, etc. This was due to the fact that the state did not yet have a sufficient apparatus to appoint its representatives to the localities. In the 17th century Voivodes became such appointed representatives of the central government. In the 16th century Only the leaders of troops were called voivodes. The governor was appointed to manage border areas, that is, territories that were threatened from a military point of view. However, during the Time of Troubles, danger to the state arose everywhere. This explains the practice of appointing governors to the internal regions of the state, which became common after the Time of Troubles. The governor’s service was “selfish” - he did not receive a salary and lived at the expense of the subject population. However, this still did not mean a return to the practice of feeding, since for governors and volosts of the 15th - first half of the 16th centuries. feeding was a reward for previous service, and for the voivode of the 17th century. management activity itself was a service. The transfer of local power into the hands of centrally appointed governors meant a significant strengthening of the government apparatus and, in essence, the completion of the centralization of the country.
5 Formalization of absolutism
The attitude towards the person of the sovereign became in the 17th century. almost religious. The king emphatically separated himself from his subjects and rose above them. In the Council Code there was an entire chapter devoted to “how to protect his sovereign health.” Even during short absences of the tsar from the Kremlin, a special decree was written about who would be in charge of the state during the absence of the sovereign. On ceremonial occasions, the king appeared in Monomakh's hat, barmas, with signs of his power - a scepter and an orb. Each appearance of the tsar was an event; when going out to the people, he was led under the arms of the boyars. All this was an external manifestation of the formation of absolutism in the country.
Absolutism refers to monarchical power, not limited by any elected representative body, based on a developed administrative apparatus and subject to the law.
Absolutism in Russia fully developed under Peter I, and its heyday is usually attributed to the era of Catherine II. In the second half of the 17th century. There was a gradual formation of absolutism.
In the 17th century in the state administration system, changes were aimed at weakening the elective principle, professionalizing the apparatus and strengthening the individual royal power. If Ivan the Terrible, in order to establish his own unlimited power, needed extraordinary terrorist measures that could intimidate the country, then Alexei Mikhailovich did not need them - his power was based on an extensive, permanent administrative apparatus.
4. POPULAR UPRISINGS IN RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY
1 "Salt Riot"
century in Russian history acquired a reputation as “rebellious”. And indeed, it began with the Troubles, the middle of it was marked by urban uprisings, the last third - by the uprising of Stepan Razin.
The most important reasons for this unprecedented scale of social conflicts in Russia were the development of serfdom and the strengthening of state taxes and duties.
In 1646, a duty on salt was introduced, significantly increasing its price. Meanwhile, salt in the 17th century. It was one of the most important products - the main preservative that made it possible to store meat and fish. Following salt, these products themselves have risen in price. Their sales fell, and unsold goods began to deteriorate. This caused discontent among both consumers and traders. The growth of government revenues was less than expected as the smuggling trade in salt developed. Already at the end of 1647, the “salt” tax was abolished. In an effort to compensate for losses, the government cut the salaries of service people “on the instrument”, that is, archers and gunners. General discontent continued to grow.
On June 1648, the so-called “salt” riot took place in Moscow. The crowd stopped the carriage of the Tsar, who was returning from a pilgrimage, and demanded that the head of the Zemsky Prikaz, Leonty Pleshcheev, be replaced. Pleshcheev's servants tried to disperse the crowd, which only provoked even greater anger. On June 2, pogroms of boyar estates began in Moscow. The clerk Nazariy Chistoy, whom Muscovites considered the mastermind of the salt tax, was killed. The rebels demanded that the tsar's closest associate, boyar Morozov, who actually led the entire state apparatus, and the head of the Pushkarsky order, boyar Trakhaniotov, be handed over for execution. Not having the strength to suppress the uprising, in which, along with the townspeople, the "regular" servicemen took part, the tsar gave in, ordering the extradition of Pleshcheev and Trakhaniotov, who were immediately killed. Morozov, his tutor and brother-in-law (the Tsar and Morozov were married to sisters) were “begged” by Alexei Mikhailovich from the rebels and sent into exile to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery.
The government announced an end to the collection of arrears, convened a Zemsky Sobor, at which the most important demands of the townspeople for a ban on moving to the “white settlements” and of the nobles for the introduction of an indefinite search for fugitives were satisfied. Thus, the government satisfied all the demands of the rebels, which indicates the comparative weakness of the state apparatus (primarily repressive) at that time.
2 Uprisings in other cities
Following the Salt Riot, urban uprisings swept through other cities: Ustyug Veliky, Kursk, Kozlov, Pskov, Novgorod.
The most powerful uprisings were in Pskov and Novgorod, caused by the rise in price of bread due to its supplies to Sweden. The urban poor, threatened by famine, expelled the governors, destroyed the courts of wealthy merchants and seized power. In the summer of 1650, both uprisings were suppressed by government troops, although they managed to enter Pskov only due to discord among the rebels.
3 "Copper Riot"
In 1662, there was again a major uprising in Moscow, which went down in history as the “Copper Riot.” It was caused by the government's attempt to replenish the treasury, devastated by the long and difficult war with Poland (1654-1667) and Sweden (1656-1658). In order to compensate for the enormous costs, the government issued copper money into circulation, making it equal in price to silver. At the same time, taxes were collected in silver coins, and goods were ordered to be sold in copper money. The salaries of servicemen were also paid in copper. Copper money was not trusted, especially since it was often counterfeited. Not wanting to trade with copper money, peasants stopped bringing food to Moscow, which caused prices to soar. Copper money depreciated: if in 1661 two copper rubles were given for a silver ruble, then in 1662 - 8.
In July 1662 a riot followed. Some of the townspeople rushed to destroy the boyars' estates, while others moved to the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow, where the tsar was staying those days. Alexey Mikhailovich promised the rebels to come to Moscow and sort things out. The crowd seemed to calm down. But in the meantime, new groups of rebels appeared in Kolomenskoye - those who had previously broken up the courtyards of the boyars in the capital. The tsar was demanded to hand over the boyars most hated by the people and threatened that if the tsar “does not give them back those boyars”, then they “will begin to take it themselves, according to their custom.”
However, during the negotiations, archers called by the tsar had already arrived in Kolomenskoye, who attacked the unarmed crowd and drove them to the river. Over 100 people drowned, many were hacked to death or captured, and the rest fled. By order of the tsar, 150 rebels were hanged, the rest were beaten with a whip and branded with iron.
Unlike the “salt”, the “copper” revolt was brutally suppressed, since the government managed to keep the archers on its side and use them against the townspeople.
4 The uprising of Stepan Razin
The largest popular performance of the second half of the 17th century. happened on the Don and Volga.
The population of the Don was Cossacks. The Cossacks did not engage in agriculture. Their main activities were hunting, fishing, cattle breeding and raids on the possessions of neighboring Turkey, Crimea and Persia. For guard duty to protect the southern borders of the state, the Cossacks received a royal salary in bread, money and gunpowder. The government also tolerated the fact that fugitive peasants and townspeople found shelter on the Don. The principle “there is no extradition from the Don” was in effect.
In the middle of the 17th century. There was no longer equality among the Cossacks. The elite of the wealthy ("home-loving") Cossacks stood out, who owned the best fisheries, herds of horses, who received a better share of the spoils and the royal salary. Poor (“golutvennye”) Cossacks worked for house-suckers.
In the 40s XVII century The Cossacks lost access to the Azov and Black Seas, as the Turks strengthened the Azov fortress. This prompted the Cossacks to move their campaigns for booty to the Volga and the Caspian Sea. The robbery of Russian and Persian merchant caravans caused great damage to trade with Persia and the entire economy of the Lower Volga region. Simultaneously with the influx of fugitives from Russia, the hostility of the Cossacks towards the Moscow boyars and officials grew.
Already in 1666, a detachment of Cossacks under the command of Ataman Vasily Us invaded Russia from the Upper Don, reached almost Tula, destroying noble estates on its way. Only the threat of a meeting with a large government army forced Us to turn back. Numerous serfs who joined him also went to the Don with him. The speech of Vasily Us showed that the Cossacks are ready at any moment to oppose the existing order and authorities.
In 1667, a detachment of a thousand Cossacks set off to the Caspian Sea on a campaign “for zipuns,” that is, for booty. At the head of this detachment was Ataman Stepan Timofeevich Razin - a native of the homely Cossacks, strong-willed, intelligent and mercilessly cruel. Razin's detachment during 1667-1669. robbed Russian and Persian merchant caravans, attacked coastal Persian cities. With rich booty, the Razins returned to Astrakhan, and from there to the Don. The “hike for zipuns” was purely predatory. However, its meaning is broader. It was in this campaign that the core of Razin’s army was formed, and the generous distribution of alms to the common people brought the ataman unprecedented popularity.
In the spring of 1670, Razin began a new campaign. This time he decided to go against the “traitor boyars”. Tsaritsyn was captured without resistance, whose residents happily opened the gates to the Cossacks. The archers sent against Razin from Astrakhan went over to his side. The rest of the Astrakhan garrison followed their example. The resisting governors and Astrakhan nobles were killed.
After this, Razin headed up the Volga. Along the way, he sent out “charming letters”, calling on the common people to beat the boyars, governors, nobles and clerks. To attract supporters, Razin spread a rumor that Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich (in fact, already deceased) and Patriarch Nikon were in his army.
The main participants in the uprising were Cossacks, peasants, serfs, townspeople and working people. The cities of the Volga region surrendered without resistance. In all the captured cities, Razin introduced administration on the model of the Cossack circle.
Failure awaited Razin only near Simbirsk, the siege of which dragged on. Meanwhile, the government sent 60,000 troops to suppress the uprising. On October 3, 1670, near Simbirsk, the government army under the command of governor Yuri Baryatinsky inflicted a severe defeat on the Razins. Razin was wounded and fled to the Don, to the town of Kagalnitsky, from which he began his campaign a year ago. He hoped to gather his supporters again. However, the homely Cossacks, led by military ataman Kornila Yakovlev, realizing that Razin’s actions could bring the tsar’s wrath on all the Cossacks, captured him and handed him over to government governors.
Razin was tortured and executed in the summer of 1671 on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow along with his brother Frol. Participants in the uprising were subjected to brutal persecution and execution.
The main reasons for the defeat of Razin's uprising were its spontaneity and low organization, the fragmented actions of the peasants, which, as a rule, were limited to the destruction of the estate of their own master, and the lack of clearly understood goals for the rebels. Even if the Razins had managed to win and capture Moscow, they would not have been able to create a new, just society. After all, the only example of such a fair society in their minds was the Cossack circle. But the entire country cannot exist by seizing and dividing other people's property. Any state needs a management system, an army, and taxes. Therefore, the victory of the rebels would inevitably be followed by new social differentiation. The victory of the unorganized peasant and Cossack masses would inevitably lead to great casualties and would cause significant damage to Russian culture and the development of the Russian state
Reasons for the "rebellion" of the 17th century. - the formation of serfdom and the growth of state duties, caused by numerous wars and the increase in the state apparatus in connection with the completion of centralization and the gradual formation of absolutism.
All the uprisings of the 17th century. were spontaneous. The participants in the events acted under the influence of desperation and the desire to seize prey. It should be noted that there was a fundamental difference in the outcome of the Salt and Copper riots, caused by the strengthening of power between 1648 and 1662.
Speaking about Razin's uprising, it should be noted that most of the major uprisings began on the outskirts, since, on the one hand, many fugitives accumulated there, not burdened with large households and ready for decisive action, and on the other hand, the power there was much weaker than in center of the country.
politics economic uprising church
5. FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY. ACCESSION OF UKRAINE
The main foreign policy partners of Russia in the 17th century. Poland, Sweden and Türkiye remained with its vassal - the Crimean Khanate.
1 Smolensk War
After the end of the Time of Troubles and the signing of the Deulin Truce, Russia's relations with Poland remained difficult. Under the terms of the truce, Russia lost the Smolensk and Chernigov-Seversky lands that previously belonged to it. In addition, Vladislav did not give up his claims to the Russian throne.
When the truce expired in 1632, and at the same time the Polish king Sigismund III died, the Russian government decided to take advantage of the inevitable weakening of Poland in connection with the election of a new king and return the lost lands. Thus began the Smolensk War. Russian troops under the command of Governor Shein captured a number of Western Russian cities and besieged Smolensk. However, they themselves soon found themselves surrounded by the army of the new Polish king Vladislav and forced to capitulate.
According to the Peace of Polyanovsky concluded in 1634, Poland returned all the cities captured by the Russians, but Vladislav officially renounced his claims to the Russian throne and recognized Mikhail Fedorovich as tsar and “brother,” that is, as his equal.
2 Strengthening the southern borders. Azov seat
In the 17th century Russia continued to advance south. Taking advantage of the gradual weakening of the Crimean Khanate and the cessation of raids, the Russians built the cities of Tambov and Kozlov. Along the borders, ramparts, ditches, and fences were built, connecting many fortified towns.
In 1637, the Don Cossacks captured the Turkish fortress of Azov. The Turks' attempts to recapture the fortress were unsuccessful - the Cossacks withstood the siege. In 1641, the Cossacks asked the tsar to take Azov under his rule. But this was fraught with a grueling war with Turkey. Convened in 1642, the Zemsky Sobor, with the voices of the townspeople and merchants, spoke out against the war. The Tsar, who initially reacted favorably to the Cossack actions, was forced to order the Cossacks to return Azov. The attitude of the Cossacks towards the government, naturally, worsened.
3 Annexation of Ukraine and war with Poland
In the 50s Russia entered into a protracted war with Poland, which was caused by the acceptance of Ukraine under Moscow's rule.
Since the time of the Horde yoke, most of Ukraine has been under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The state language was Polish, the state religion was Catholicism, the main land holdings were in the hands of Polish magnates. Ukrainians turned out to be second-class citizens. Most of them were serfs. Only a part of Ukrainians managed to switch to Cossack status.
Fugitive peasants and city dwellers, as well as small Ukrainian nobles, became Cossacks. The Cossacks lived by hunting, fishing and raiding Crimean possessions. The transformation of the Cossacks into a kind of frontier (border) army, guarding the borders from the Crimeans, was beneficial to the Polish crown. Therefore, some of the Cossacks were accepted into the royal service and received cash salaries and land holdings from the crown. Such Cossacks were called registered (from the word “register” - a list of those in service). The registered Cossacks were united into regiments led by colonels and esauls, and at the head of the entire Cossacks was an elected hetman, approved by the king. Cossacks who were not included in the register often went to the so-called Zaporozhye Sich, on the island of Khortytsia below the Dnieper rapids.
The Zaporozhye Cossacks were freemen led by an elected ataman, who bore the title of “koshevoy ataman.” The rebellious Cossacks often attacked not only the Crimean possessions, but also Poland. Women were not allowed in Zaporozhye. Agriculture was strictly prohibited. There was no insurmountable line between Zaporozhye and registered Cossacks, since their stay in Zaporozhye was often temporary.
In 1648, the largest Cossack uprising against the Poles took place under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytsky. B. Khmelnitsky was a Cossack centurion, participated on the side of Poland in the Smolensk War, for which he received an award from King Vladislav. However, after the Polish nobleman Chaplinsky plundered his farm and killed his son, he fled to Zaporozhye and raised the Cossacks to revolt. In 1648, Khmelnytsky's rebels successively defeated Polish troops in the battles of Zhelti Vody, Korsun and Pilyavtsy, and captured part of Volyn and Podolia. At the end of 1648 they occupied Kyiv. The masses of the Ukrainian Cossacks and peasantry joined the uprising. In August 1649, the rebels defeated the Polish army near Zborov. However, Khmelnitsky's ally, the Crimean Khan, went over to the side of the Poles. If at first the khan was interested in the successes of the Cossacks, who weakened the dangerous enemy of the Crimea - Poland, but then, as Khmelnitsky’s successes grew, the Cossacks themselves began to pose a threat to the Crimea, and it became profitable for the Tatars to support Poland.
Having lost the support of the Crimeans, the rebels were forced to sign the Zboriv Peace Treaty with Poland. The Cossack register was increased to 40 thousand people, three voivodeships - Kiev, Chernigov and Bratslav - came under hetman control. The power of the gentry was limited here; only Orthodox Christians could occupy all positions. However, gentry land ownership and the dependence of the peasants on the lords remained. This led to dissatisfaction of the peasant masses with the peace treaty, from which only the Cossack elite received real benefits. It was under pressure from the peasantry that Khmelnitsky was forced to resume hostilities.
In 1651, in the battle of Berestechko, Khmelnytsky’s army suffered a heavy defeat, since unreliable allies, the Crimeans, again went over to the Polish side in the midst of the battle. The defeat forced the conclusion of a new, much less profitable Belotserkov peace. Now only the Kiev Voivodeship remained under the control of the hetman, the register was halved - to 20 thousand. However, this agreement never came into force, since the Polish Sejm rejected it, hoping to finally finish off the rebels.
In 1652, the rebels won a victory near Batog (on the Southern Bug), but even this victory did not allow Ukraine to hope for victory in single combat with Poland. Having no reliable allies, Ukraine could only count on the help of Russia of the same faith. From the very beginning of the liberation struggle, Khmelnitsky repeatedly turned to Moscow with a request for patronage. However, the Russian government did not dare to take such a step for a long time, realizing that it would entail a new war with Poland.
Only in 1653 did the Zemsky Sobor decide to accept Ukraine “under the high hand” of the Tsar. On January 8, 1654, the Ukrainian Rada in the city of Pereyaslav approved the transition under Moscow patronage and swore allegiance to the tsar.
This decision did not mean Ukraine’s entry into the Russian state: a kind of contractual relationship was established, reminiscent of a protectorate. In Ukraine, elective Cossack government headed by a hetman was maintained, and the local legal system continued to operate. Ukraine even retained its foreign policy independence: it could conduct independent contacts with all countries except Poland and Turkey. True, later the Russian government began to gradually limit Ukrainian independence, destroy local traditions, turning Ukraine into an ordinary part of Russia. This process ended under Catherine II with the destruction of the hetmanate and the Zaporozhye Sich.
The decision of the Council of 1653 meant war. In 1654, the Russians captured Smolensk and part of Belarus. This war, in which the Swedes also intervened, became protracted. Negotiations began in 1661 and continued until 1667, when the Truce of Andrusovo was concluded. Russia acquired Smolensk and Left Bank Ukraine. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus remained with Poland. A compromise decision was made regarding Kyiv - it transferred to Russia for two years. However, subsequently Russia never returned Kyiv to Poland, and in 1686, under the so-called “Eternal Peace”, it achieved its permanent assignment to itself.
4 War with Sweden
Poland's defeats initial stage The Russian-Polish War allowed Sweden to capture a number of Polish cities and create a threat to Russia's western borders. In 1656, the Russian-Swedish war began. The Russians captured Dorpat and besieged Riga, but were unable to take it. A war with Poland and Sweden at the same time was beyond Russia's strength. In addition, the top of the Cossacks, led by Hetman I. Vygovsky, reoriented towards the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and entered into an alliance with it against Russia. In 1658, the Russian-Swedish truce was signed, and in 1661 - the Treaty of Kardis, according to which Russia abandoned all its acquisitions in the Baltic states.
Thus, the main foreign policy task - access to the shores of the Baltic Sea - was not resolved. Russia still remained cut off from sea trade routes.
The main foreign policy goals of Russia in the 17th century. What remained was the return of lands lost during the Troubles and access to the sea. It was not possible to achieve access to the sea due to Russia's military weakness.
Entering into a major war, as a rule, required the convening of a Zemsky Sobor, as it was associated with extraordinary expenses and possible unrest.
Russia fought wars not only for its lost territories, but also for lands that were once part of Kievan Rus, but never belonged to the Muscovite state.
The decision of the Pereyaslav Rada meant that Ukraine was asking for Moscow’s patronage, but not for Ukraine’s entry into the Russian state.
6. SCHISM OF THE RUSSIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH. CHURCH AND STATE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
6.1 Reasons for church reform
The centralization of the Russian state required the unification of church rules and rituals. Already in the 16th century. a uniform all-Russian code of saints was established. However, significant discrepancies remained in the liturgical books, often caused by copyist errors. Eliminating these differences became one of the goals of the system created in the 40s. XVII century in Moscow, a circle of “zealots of ancient piety”, consisting of prominent representatives of the clergy. He also sought to correct the morals of the clergy.
The spread of printing made it possible to establish uniformity of texts, but first it was necessary to decide on what models to base corrections on.
Political considerations played a decisive role in resolving this issue. The desire to make Moscow (“Third Rome”) the center of world Orthodoxy required rapprochement with Greek Orthodoxy. However, the Greek clergy insisted on correcting Russian church books and rituals according to the Greek model.
Since the introduction of Orthodoxy in Rus', the Greek Church has experienced a number of reforms and differed significantly from the ancient Byzantine and Russian models. Therefore, part of the Russian clergy, led by “zealots of ancient piety,” opposed the proposed transformations. However, Patriarch Nikon, relying on the support of Alexei Mikhailovich, decisively carried out the planned reforms.
6.2 Patriarch Nikon
Nikon comes from the family of the Mordovian peasant Mina, in the world - Nikita Minin. He became Patriarch in 1652. Nikon, distinguished by his unyielding, decisive character, had a colossal influence on Alexei Mikhailovich, who called him his “sobi (special) friend.”
The most important ritual changes were: baptism not with two, but with three fingers, replacement of prostrations with waist ones, singing “Hallelujah” three times instead of twice, the movement of believers in the church past the altar not with the sun, but against it. The name of Christ began to be written differently - “Jesus” instead of “Iesus”. Some changes were made to the rules of worship and icon painting. All books and icons written according to old models were subject to destruction.
4 Reaction to reform
For believers, this was a serious departure from the traditional canon. After all, a prayer pronounced not according to the rules is not only ineffective - it is blasphemous! Nikon’s most persistent and consistent opponents were the “zealots of ancient piety” (previously the patriarch himself was a member of this circle). They accused him of introducing “Latinism,” because the Greek Church since the Union of Florence in 1439 was considered “spoiled” in Russia. Moreover, Greek liturgical books were printed not in Turkish Constantinople, but in Catholic Venice.
6.5 The emergence of a schism
Nikon's opponents - the "Old Believers" - refused to recognize the reforms he carried out. At the church councils of 1654 and 1656. Nikon's opponents were accused of schism, excommunicated and exiled.
The most prominent supporter of the schism was Archpriest Avvakum, a talented publicist and preacher. A former court priest, a member of the circle of “zealots of ancient piety,” he experienced severe exile, suffering, and the death of children, but did not give up his fanatical opposition to “Nikonianism” and its defender, the tsar. After 14 years of imprisonment in an “earth prison,” Avvakum was burned alive for “blasphemy against the royal house.” The most famous work of historical ritual literature was the “Life” of Avvakum, written by himself.
6 Old Believers
The Church Council of 1666/1667 cursed the Old Believers. Brutal persecution of schismatics began. Supporters of the split hid in the hard-to-reach forests of the North, Trans-Volga region, and the Urals. Here they created hermitages, continuing to pray in the old way. Often, when the tsarist punitive detachments approached, they staged a “burn” - self-immolation.
The monks of the Solovetsky Monastery did not accept Nikon’s reforms. Until 1676, the rebellious monastery withstood the siege of the tsarist troops. The rebels, believing that Alexei Mikhailovich had become a servant of the Antichrist, abandoned the traditional Orthodox prayer for the Tsar.
The reasons for the fanatical persistence of the schismatics were rooted, first of all, in their belief that Nikonianism was the product of Satan. However, this confidence itself was fueled by certain social reasons.
Among the schismatics there were many clergy. For an ordinary priest, innovations meant that he had lived his entire life incorrectly. In addition, many clergy were illiterate and unprepared to master new books and customs. The townspeople and merchants also widely participated in the schism. Nikon had long been in conflict with the settlements, objecting to the liquidation of the “white settlements” belonging to the church. The monasteries and the patriarchal see were engaged in trade and crafts, which irritated the merchants, who believed that the clergy was illegally invading their sphere of activity. Therefore, the posad readily perceived everything that came from the patriarch as evil.
Among the Old Believers there were also representatives of the ruling classes, for example, Boyarina Morozova and Princess Urusova. However, these are still isolated examples.
The bulk of the schismatics were peasants, who went to monasteries not only for the right faith, but also for freedom, from lordly and monastic exactions.
Naturally, subjectively, each Old Believer saw the reasons for his departure into schism solely in his rejection of the “Nikon heresy.”
There were no bishops among the schismatics. There was no one to ordain new priests. In this situation, some of the Old Believers resorted to “rebaptizing” the Nikonian priests who had gone into schism, while others abandoned the clergy altogether. The community of such schismatics - "non-priests" - was led by "mentors" or "readers" - the most knowledgeable believers in the Scriptures. Outwardly, the “non-priest” trend in the schism resembled Protestantism. However, this similarity is illusory. Protestants rejected the priesthood on principle, believing that a person does not need an intermediary in communication with God. The schismatics rejected the priesthood and the church hierarchy forcibly, in a random situation.
The ideology of the schism, based on the rejection of everything new, the fundamental rejection of any foreign influence, secular education, was extremely conservative.
6.7 Conflict between the church and secular authorities. Fall of Nikon
The powerful Nikon sought to revive the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities that existed under Filaret. Nikon argued that the priesthood is higher than the kingdom, since it represents God, and secular power is from God. He actively intervened in secular affairs.
Gradually, Alexey Mikhailovich began to feel burdened by the power of the patriarch. In 1658 there was a break between them. The Tsar demanded that Nikon should no longer be called the Great Sovereign. Then Nikon declared that he did not want to be a patriarch “in Moscow” and left for the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery on the river. Istra. He hoped that the king would yield, but he was mistaken. On the contrary, the patriarch was required to resign so that a new head of the church could be elected. Nikon replied that he did not renounce the rank of patriarch, and did not want to be patriarch only “in Moscow.”
Neither the tsar nor the church council could remove the patriarch. Only in 1666 a church council was held in Moscow with the participation of two ecumenical patriarchs - Antioch and Alexandria. The council supported the tsar and deprived Nikon of his patriarchal rank. Nikon was imprisoned in a monastery prison, where he died in 1681.
The resolution of the “Nikon case” in favor of the secular authorities meant that the church could no longer interfere in state affairs. From that time on, the process of subordinating the church to the state began, which ended under Peter I with the liquidation of the patriarchate, the creation of the Holy Synod headed by a secular official and the transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church into a state church.
The question of the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities was one of the most important in the political life of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries. In the 16th century The dominant Josephite trend in the Russian church abandoned the thesis of the superiority of church power over secular power. After Ivan the Terrible's reprisal against Metropolitan Philip, the subordination of the church to the state seemed final. However, the situation changed during the Time of Troubles. The authority of the royal power was shaken due to the abundance of impostors and a series of perjuries. The authority of the church, thanks to Patriarch Hermogenes, who led the spiritual resistance to the Poles and suffered martyrdom from them, becoming the most important unifying force, increased. The political role of the church increased even more under Patriarch Filaret, the father of Tsar Michael.
The schism in the Russian Orthodox Church occurred due to the following reasons:
· The need for church reform in the middle of the 17th century. from the point of view of establishing uniformity of worship.
· The desire of the secular and church authorities to correct books and rituals according to Greek models in order to strengthen the leading role of the Moscow state in the Orthodox world.
· A combination of social and purely religious motives in the emergence of the Old Believers.
· Conservative nature of the ideology of schism.
The confrontation between Nikon and Alexei Mikhailovich is the last open conflict between the church and state authorities, after which we are talking only about the degree of subordination of the church to secular authorities.
7. RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 17th century.
1 Material culture
Life of Russian people in the 17th century. changed gradually. The cuisine of the vast majority of the population remained traditional. It was based on cabbage soup, porridge, bread and various flour dishes. A lot of fish was consumed. Meat was also available even to people of low income. The preferred drinks were various kvass, honey, and beer. Imported wines, spices, and fruits appeared in rich houses.
Russian costume, while remaining traditional at its core, has nevertheless undergone certain changes. Clothing became more diverse, caftans of various cuts and hats appeared different shapes. At the end of the 17th century. noble dandies often rejected long-skirted Russian dresses, preferring more comfortable Polish or Hungarian ones.
Rich houses were increasingly built of stone. Mirrors and paintings appeared in the rooms, often on secular themes. Furniture has become more varied.
The development of the craft continued. Particularly significant successes were achieved by craftsmen engaged in iron processing, jewelry making, bell casting, weaving, production wooden products. Due to the spread of small-scale production, handicraft products have become more diverse. In Russia they learned how to produce glass, and even founded the first glass factory.
2 Education and writing
The growth of crafts, trade, and the strengthening of the state apparatus caused a wider spread of literacy among the urban population. It is believed that among the townspeople, 40-50% were literate.
Literacy was taught mainly by clergy and clerks. They taught from church books. The first Russian primer was published in the 90s. XVII century
However, already in the first half of the 17th century, private schools appeared, where they taught not only literacy, but also rhetoric and ancient languages. The teachers there were often learned Ukrainian monks. One of them was the outstanding educator Simeon of Polotsk. In 1685, the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was created, founded by the Likhud brothers, Greeks who came from Ukraine. The Academy was modeled after European universities. Teaching was conducted in Greek and Latin (which gave it its name). Rhetoric, logic, philosophy and physics were taught.
Handwritten books were still widespread. In the middle of the 17th century. paper production was established in Russia. However, there was not enough of it, so paper was brought from Europe. Book printing also expanded. More than 150 people worked at the Moscow Printing Yard. In the first half of the 17th century. Over 200 books were published. Among them, liturgical books, official documents, and textbooks predominated.
3 Literature
In the literature of the 17th century. the features of secularization are especially noticeable. The heroes of literary works acquire individual characters. Dexterity and enterprise are valued. Literature of the 17th century began to show interest in inner world a person, his personal, intimate experiences. Thus, the “Tale of the Tver Youth Monastery” tells about the sufferings of the princely youth, from whom the prince took his bride. However, the outcome of the story is decided in a purely religious spirit: the unfortunate man, at the behest of the Mother of God, founds a monastery.
In “The Tale of Woe,” a young man who rejects the traditions of his patriarchal parental family suffers disasters and eventually enters a monastery. It is characteristic that the monastery cell, in contrast to the literature of previous centuries, is understood not as a desired quiet haven, but as a forced and joyless refuge.
These examples indicate that the literature of the 17th century. I was just beginning to overcome traditions. In stories early XVIII c., when the process of secularization leads to the final triumph of the secular principle in literature, the heroes will emerge victorious from any life conflicts.
In the literature of the 17th century. Fundamentally new genres appeared: satire, drama, poetry.
The “Kalyazin Petition” and a number of other works ridiculed the dissolute morals of the clergy. In “The Tale of Hawk Moth,” the drunkard argued that he had more rights to heavenly bliss than the saints, listing the sins of the heroes of the Holy Scriptures.
The emergence of Russian poetry and drama is associated with the name of Simeon of Polotsk. The autobiographical genre came to Russian literature thanks to the “Life” of Archpriest Avvakum. Avvakum acted not only as a passionate publicist and denouncer of church and secular authorities, but also as a reformer of the literary language. boldly introducing vernacular speech into written speech.
4 Architecture
Architecture of the 17th century has undergone significant changes. Along with religious buildings made of brick and stone, residential buildings and civil buildings began to be erected. The appearance of the churches also changed: they became less severe and ascetic, acquired an elegant festive look, and were decorated with colored bricks and tiles. For churches of the 17th century. Characteristic features are onion-shaped domes, elongated dome drums, numerous kokoshniks, platbands, and columns.
The Trinity Church in Nikitniki, built in the 30s, was distinguished by its rich decor. XVII century An outstanding example of hipped-roof architecture of the mid-17th century. became the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, crowned with six tents (two of them crown the interior of the church, one crowns the bell tower, and three are simply decorative).
In the middle of the 17th century. tented temple construction stopped at the request of Patriarch Nikon. He sought to return heaviness and monumentality to church architecture. However, even in buildings of the 2nd half of the 17th century. features of the new are felt. Thus, in the huge five-domed cathedral of the Valdai Iversky Monastery, huge window openings, completely uncharacteristic of the architecture of previous centuries, attract attention. Even in the Resurrection Cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery, which, according to the patriarch’s plan, was supposed to reproduce the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, colored tiles were used.
In the 80s XVII century a peculiar “patterned” style developed. Its examples are the Church of the Resurrection in Kadashi and St. Nicholas in Khamovniki.
At the end of the 17th century. A new architectural style appeared - Naryshkin (Moscow) Baroque. Its distinctive features are picturesqueness, complexity of the plan, and a combination of red (brickwork) and white (stone carving) colors of the facade. A typical example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili, built in 1693 in the Naryshkin estate.
Among the secular buildings of the 17th century. A prominent place was occupied by the wooden country royal palace in Kolomenskoye (1667-1678), which consisted of many mansions, passages, galleries and turrets, covered with gilded carvings on top.
The brick Teremnoy Palace of the Moscow Kremlin (30s of the 17th century) had an elegant, “gingerbread” appearance.
Residential stone houses in the 17th century. began to be built in two and three floors. They vividly resembled wooden mansions: passages, complex silhouettes, picturesque porches. An example of such buildings are the chambers of Averky Kirillov on Bersenevskaya embankment in Moscow. By the end of the 17th century. residential buildings began to look more like European city houses and palaces of the nobility.
In the 17th century Tower construction developed interestingly. The Kremlin towers received hipped roofs, acquiring a modern look. Industrial and civil structures were built in the form of towers. In the 90s XVII century The famous Sukharevskaya Tower was built at the Sretensky Gate of the Zemlyanoy City.
5 Fine arts
In the fine arts of the 17th century. The influence of tradition remained stronger than in other spheres of culture, which was explained by the control of church authorities over compliance with the iconographic canon. And yet, it was in the 17th century. the transformation of icon painting into painting began.
The greatest artist of the century was Simon Ushakov. His most famous work is “The Savior Not Made by Hands.” The face of Christ by Ushakov is harmonious and classically correct. The icon “Planting the Tree of the Russian State” is a work on a secular subject. Here Ivan Kalita and Metropolitan Peter are depicted watering a tree, in the crown of which there are medallions depicting great princes and kings. Next to the tree is Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich.
In the 17th century the beginning of portraiture was laid. There are known images of Alexei Mikhailovich, his son Fyodor Alekseevich, Patriarch Nikon, Prince Skopin-Shuisky and others. True, the strong influence of iconography is still felt in it. Works of the 17th century It is customary to call them not portraits, but parsuns. They are characterized by a combination of portrait resemblance with a planar image. However, this was already a significant step towards portrait art of the 18th century.
Conclusion: c. occupies a special place in the history of Russian culture. This century is a transition from the traditional medieval culture of Moscow Rus' to the culture of the New Age. Most modern researchers believe that the most important cultural transformations of Peter I were prepared by the entire course of the history of Russian culture in the 17th century.
The most important feature of Russian culture of the 17th century. consists in widespread secularization, the gradual destruction of the medieval entirely religious consciousness. Worldization affected all aspects of cultural development: education, literature, architecture, painting. This applies, however, mainly to the urban population, while the culture of the village remained completely within the framework of tradition for a long time.
8. FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA AT THE TURN OF THE XVII - XVIII CENTURIES. NORTH WAR
1 "Eternal Peace". Crimean campaigns
In 1686, during the reign of Princess Sophia, the so-called “eternal peace” was concluded with Poland. Russia received Kyiv forever. At the same time, she entered into an anti-Turkish coalition with Poland, Austria and Venice.
As part of the coalition, Russia was assigned a supporting role - the fight against the Crimean Khanate. In 1687 and 1689 favorite of Sophia V.V. Golitsyn made two trips to Crimea. In the waterless steppe, Russian troops suffered severely from thirst. In addition, the Tatars set fire to the steppe. The first time Golitsyn did not even reach the Crimea, the second time he was forced to turn away from under the walls of Perekop. The Crimean campaigns strengthened the international position of Russia, which for the first time in a long time acted in alliance with European powers against the “infidels.” However, the population of Russia saw that the campaigns ended in failure and required large unnecessary expenses. This had a negative impact on the authority of Sophia's government and contributed to her defeat in the clash with Peter in 1689.
2 Azov campaigns
During Sophia's reign, Peter lived with his mother in Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow and was actually removed from the court. His main occupation was war games. Already in those years, two “amusing battalions” were created - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, which later formed the basis of the Russian regular army. After large maneuvers in 1694 in the village of Kozhukhov near Moscow, Peter decided that the army was ready for a real war and set out on a new campaign against Turkey.
Unlike Golitsyn’s Crimean campaigns, the new campaign was directed against the Turkish fortress of Azov, which blocked the exit from the Don to the Sea of Azov. The army marching along the Don was not threatened by thirst.
However, the 1st Azov campaign ended in failure. The Russians did not have enough strength to storm the fortress. An attempt to blow up the walls also failed. The siege was pointless, since the Russians did not have a fleet and the Turks freely received the necessary supplies from the sea.
In the winter of 1695/96, the first Russian fleet was built near Voronezh, consisting of two large ships and many galleys and plows. In 1696, the 2nd Azov campaign took place. Azov was besieged from sea and land and capitulated after a month and a half. A Russian garrison was sent to Azov, and construction of the Taganrog fortress began nearby.
3 "Grand Embassy"
Access to the shores of the Sea of Azov has not yet made Russia a maritime power. There was a struggle ahead for access to the Black and Mediterranean Seas. This required a large fleet. By order of the tsar, the merchants, nobility and monasteries created “kumpanships”, which built ships with their own money. By 1698, 52 large ships had been built.
In 1697, Peter sent the “Great Embassy” to Europe, the purpose of which was to create a broad anti-Turkish coalition with the participation of the “sea powers” - England and Holland. At the same time, the embassy had to hire craftsmen and naval officers for the Russian service. The embassy included 35 young nobles who were going to Europe to study. Peter himself left as part of the embassy incognito under the name of Peter Mikhailov.
The embassy was able to successfully solve auxiliary tasks - hire foreign specialists and assign young nobles to study. The trip allowed Peter himself to become better acquainted with Europe and its technical and scientific achievements. However, it was not possible to create a coalition against Turkey, since the attention of the European powers was occupied by the brewing great war of the Spanish succession. Even Austria and Venice withdrew from the war with Turkey. Therefore, Russia took part in the Karlowitz Congress and in January 1699 signed a two-year truce with Turkey.
4 Beginning of the Northern War. Defeat at Narva
The “Grand Embassy” showed the impossibility of creating an anti-Turkish coalition and the struggle for the Black Sea. But in the course of it it became clear that there was a possibility of creating an anti-Swedish coalition and fighting for access to the Baltic Sea. In 1699, treaties of alliance were concluded with Denmark and Saxony (the Saxon Elector Augustus II was also the Polish king). Having concluded a 30-year truce with Turkey, Russia entered the Northern War in August 1700.
In October 1700, a 40,000-strong Russian army besieged the Narva fortress. The siege dragged on due to the inept actions of the artillerymen and the lack of cannonballs and gunpowder. Meanwhile, the Swedish king Charles XII surprise attack took Denmark out of the fight, and then landed in Estland. On November 18 he approached Narva. In the battle that took place, the Russian army was defeated, despite significant numerical superiority: 35-40 thousand Russians against 12 thousand Swedes. The reasons for the defeat were the unfortunate location of the Russian troops, their poor training and the betrayal of most of the foreign command staff led by Duke von Krui. Only the Guards (formerly amusing) regiments offered real resistance. The Swedes captured all Russian artillery and captured most of the officers.
8.5 Rebuilding the army
Having won a victory near Narva, the Swedes, however, moved not to Russia, but to Poland. This decision of Charles XII gave Peter I time to restore the army. Peter subsequently wrote about Narva: “When we received this misfortune (or better said, great happiness), then captivity drove away laziness and forced us to work hard day and night.”
A new recruitment into the army was announced. By the spring of 1701, 10 dragoon regiments of 1 thousand people each were formed. Gradually, the transition to recruiting recruits took place - 1 person from 50 - 200 peasant households. Since 1705, recruitment became regular. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments turned into unique officer schools. The Navigation School was organized for the training of naval officers.
In the Urals, the construction of metallurgical plants began in the shortest possible time, and the casting of cast iron cannons and cannonballs began. Some of the bells taken from churches were cast onto copper cannons.
6 First victories in the Baltics. Founding of St. Petersburg
Soon after Narva, Peter sent boyar B.P. Sheremetev with cavalry detachments to the Baltic states. Sheremetev actually waged a guerrilla war, attacking Swedish patrols and convoys. He won his first serious victory in 1701 at the Erestfer manor over the detachment of General Schlippenbach, for which he was awarded the rank of field marshal.
In 1702, Sheremetev's troops took the Marienburg fortress in Estland. In the autumn of the same year, the Swedish fortress of Noteburg fell at the source of the Neva (ancient Russian Oreshek). Peter gave the fortress a new name - Shlisselburg (Key City), believing that it opens the way to the conquest of the entire territory along the banks of the Neva - Ingria. In 1703, the Russians took the Nyenschanz fortress at the confluence of the Okhta and the Neva.
In the same year, St. Petersburg was founded on Hare Island on the Neva. After 10 years, Peter actually moved the capital of Russia here. To cover the city from the sea, the Kronshlot fortress was founded on the island. Kotlin.
The construction of the fleet began: in 1703, the Olonets shipyard began work, and in 1705, the Admiralty shipyard in St. Petersburg.
In 1704, Russian troops captured the important Swedish fortresses of Dorpat and Narva. Access to the sea was secured.
By the end of the 17th century. Russia's main foreign policy task remained the struggle for access to the sea. Russia had only one port, Arkhangelsk, which was remote and frozen for most of the year. The ice-free seas were under the control of major military powers - Turkey and Sweden, with which Russia did not dare to fight alone.
Conclusion
If any historical period is, in a certain sense, a transitional era, since in it something always dies and something is born, then in relation to the 17th century. this situation is more than fair: during this period the number of “births” and “deaths” was greater than in any other. Therefore, it is not surprising that the 17th century. are considered as the period that prepared the transformations of Peter I. The emergence of new elements in the development of society rarely occurs without conflict: most often they have to enter into a struggle with traditional, established forms of life, which creates conditions for destabilizing the socio-political situation. This is exactly how things were in Russia. Indeed, in contrast to the previous stages of the development of the Russian state, when most conflicts occurred only in the upper echelons of power, in the 17th century the social lower classes increasingly entered the political scene. Even leaving aside the “Troubles,” one can name such major clashes between the masses and the authorities as the city uprisings of 1648 - 1651, 1662, the uprising led by S. Razin, or the Streltsy uprisings of the late 16th century.
All of them, one way or another, are connected with the formation of a new statehood in Russia.
If the first half of the century is characterized by a sharp increase in the importance of such government bodies as the Zemsky Sobors and the Boyar Duma, without whose advice the tsar could not make a single major decision, then from the second half of the 17th century. their influence begins to decline rapidly. Since 1684, for example, Zemsky Sobors ceased to be convened. Even earlier, the tsar begins to ignore the advice of the Duma, switching to the practice of relying on his closest advisers (“Near Duma,” “room”). On the contrary, the role of executive institutions - orders - and the bureaucratic apparatus (prikazny chiefs, clerks, clerks, etc.) in public administration is sharply increasing. Just in the 17th century. the order system flourished. All these changes are undoubted evidence of the strengthening of the power of the Russian monarch, who is increasingly turning into a truly autocratic ruler.
They were already reflected by the Council Code of 1649, which clearly shows a tendency towards legal support for the unlimited power of the sovereign. Thus, by the end of the 17th century. In the Russian state system, all the conditions for the final formation of absolutism were in place.
Centralization political system was closely connected with the process of completing the formation of the social structure of Russian society. On the one hand, the consolidation of its upper layer is becoming more and more noticeable: by the end of the 17th century. The former division between boyars and nobles practically lost its meaning. The formal expression of this rapprochement was the act of abolishing localism in 1682. Not only is the estate moving closer to the patrimony (through an increase in the rights of the landowner to own land), but also the opposite - the patrimony to the estate (since both the first and the second were determined by the obligation to serve the sovereign). On the other hand, the lower classes of society also finally took shape, which is associated, first of all, with the completion of the formation of the serf-owning system of relations. The Council Code of 1649 legally attached the peasants to the land (as, incidentally, the townspeople - to the towns, and the nobles and boyars - to the service), creating a state system of serfdom. True, the Cossacks played a special role in the social structure, enjoying relatively wide autonomy. However, from the middle of the 17th century. the government begins to increasingly attack the privileges of the Cossacks, trying to completely subordinate them to its control.
In fact, one can talk about the inappropriateness of considering serfdom as a policy only in relation to peasants. All classes experienced serfdom from the state, although to varying degrees. This, apparently, was what caused the major social conflicts that shook Russia in the 17th century. Despite the fact that in a number of cases social protests forced governments to make concessions (and sometimes very serious ones, as, for example, during the uprising in Moscow in 1648), the state, on the whole, managed to use the existing contradictions among the rebels and achieve , ultimately even strengthening their positions. At the same time, active social struggle, primarily among the lower classes, forced the authorities to moderate the pace of the serf offensive.
Thus, the extreme inconsistency of the socio-political processes of the 17th century. is an integral characteristic of this period. This clearly proves the validity of the interpretation of the 17th century. as a transitional era. Another thing is that the question of what are the reasons for this transition, from what and to what it was made and how positive it is for Russia - all these problems caused and still cause a lot of controversy. If for some the transition to a new era was a consequence of the development of natural socio-historical processes along the path of progress, then for others it is explained only by the increased influence of the West on Russia. If, according to the “statists”, the main content of the 17th century. There was a struggle between clan and state principles, then Soviet historians looked for in it the beginning of the confrontation between feudalism and nascent capitalism. Finally, while the “Slavophiles” saw in the 17th century. the pinnacle of development, the heyday of the unique Russian civilization, and, accordingly, assessed Peter’s reforms extremely negatively, the “Westerners,” on the contrary, positively assessed only those features of the 17th century that pointed to the development in the embryo of future transformations.
Bibliography
1. Bushchik L.P. Illustrated history of the USSR. XV-XVII centuries A manual for teachers and students. Inst. M., "Enlightenment", 1970.
2. Danilova L.V. Historical conditions for the development of the Russian nationality during the period of formation and strengthening of the centralized state in Russia // Questions of the formation of the Russian nationality and nation. Digest of articles. M.-L., USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958.
Druzhinin N.M. Socio-economic conditions for the formation of the Russian bourgeois nation // Questions of the formation of Russian nationality and nation. Digest of articles. M.-L., USSR Academy of Sciences, 1958.
History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century / A.P. Novoseltsev, A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov, V.D. Nazarov, - M.: AST Publishing House, 1996.
Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M. Russian history. Textbook for universities. M., Publishing House Infra M-Norma, 1997.
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Causes of the Time of Troubles:
- Dynastic crisis. The end of the Rurik dynasty.
- Russia's emerging lag behind the West is leading to the emergence of a large number of supporters of development along the Western path. Poland is cited as a role model, which by this time was turning into an aristocratic republic (“Rzeczpospolita” - “republic” in Polish). The Polish king is elected by the Sejm. Boris Godunov is also becoming a moderate “Westerner.”
- Growing public dissatisfaction with the authorities.
The election of Boris Godunov as Tsar in 1598 is considered to be the beginning of the Time of Troubles. The new Tsar prepared a project of reforms and pursued a fairly successful foreign policy. The relatively calm course of events was interrupted by crop failures and a terrible famine in 1601-1603. The population, driven to despair, blamed the new king for all their troubles. It was believed that famine was God’s punishment for Godunov’s murder of Tsarevich Dmitry.
1602-1604 – Khlopok uprising in Ukraine and southern Russia.
In 1602, False Dmitry I appeared in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the fugitive monk Grigory Otrepiev, who declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry. He was supported by the King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III, Polish-Lithuanian magnates and gentry. One of the magnates even betrothed his daughter Marina Mnishek to False Dmitry.
December 1604 The city of False Dmitry, at the head of a small detachment, crossed the border of Rus' and was defeated by the royal army near Dobrynichi. However, he received massive support from the Russian population, who had long been awaiting the arrival of a legitimate sovereign. The triumphal campaign of False Dmitry against Moscow begins. In April 1605, Boris Godunov died suddenly. His 16-year-old son Fedor became Tsar. In June, a coup took place in Moscow - Fedor and his mother were killed and the impostor took the throne.
Having become king, False Dmitry was in no hurry to fulfill the promises made to the Poles - to introduce Catholicism in Russia, transfer Smolensk to Poland, etc. At the same time, with his Polish manners and reluctance to restore “St. George’s Day,” he also disappointed the Russian population. Rumors about the Tsar’s adoption of Catholicism for the sake of marriage with Marina Mnishek added fuel to the fire. May 17 1606 Mr. False Dmitry was killed. Vasily Shuisky, a supporter of the traditional Russian way of life, became Tsar.
The struggle of various segments of the population against the boyar tsar began already in 1606. It was led by Ivan Bolotnikov, a former military serf, posing as the governor of False Dmitry. Bolotnikov's army consisted of peasants, serfs, townspeople, Cossacks and nobles dissatisfied with the boyars. On the eve of the decisive battle near Moscow in December 1606, a significant part of the nobles, led by Prokopiy Lyapunov, went over to Shuisky’s side, which ensured the Tsar’s victory. Bolotnikov's army retreated to Tula, was besieged there and capitulated in October 1607. One of the reasons for the king's victory was his promise to grant forgiveness to the rebel slaves. Bolotnikov and part of the rebels were executed.
In 1607, a new False Dmitry appeared on the southwestern outskirts of Rus' - False Dmitry II. He pretended to be Dmitry, who had survived (for the second time). His words were confirmed by Marina Mnishek, who recognized False Dmitry as her husband. False Dmitry II no longer received such massive support from the population as False Dmitry I, so he was unable to gather significant forces. In 1608 he approached Moscow and became a camp in Tushino(hence the nickname Tushino thief). A confrontation began between the boyar tsar, sitting on the throne in Moscow, and the Tushino impostor. In fact, the country was divided into two parts. Both have kings, orders, Boyar Dumas and even patriarchs: in Moscow - Hermogenes, in Tushino - Filaret.
Unable to cope with the Tyshinsky thief, Shuisky entered into an agreement with Sweden in February 1609. He gave the Karelian volost to the Swedes, receiving military assistance in return. However, the Swedes were in no hurry to help Shuisky. At the same time, the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sigismund III, who was constantly at enmity with Sweden, regarded this treaty as a desired pretext for open intervention against Russia. In September 1609 The city of Sigismund besieged Smolensk. In 1610, False Dmitry, whom Sigismund no longer needed, was killed by the Poles. Initially, the fight against Polish aggression was relatively successful. A talented young commander, nephew of the Tsar, M.V. Skopin-Shuisky was able to win a number of victories. However, his glory as a winner frightened Vasily Shuisky. Skopin-Shuisky was poisoned. IN 1610 The Polish hetman Khodkevich defeated Shuisky's army in a general battle near the village of Klushino (west of Mozhaisk).
July 17th 1610 The boyars and nobles, led by Hermogenes, overthrew Shuisky, who had lost all authority. Before the election of a new tsar, power in Moscow passed into the hands of a government of 7 boyars - seven-boyars. The seven-boyars were headed by boyar F. Mstislavsky.
On the initiative of Filaret, in order to stop the intervention, Sigismund's son Vladislav was invited to the throne. At the same time, conditions were set: Vladislav had to promise to preserve the Moscow order and accept Orthodoxy. Although Sigismund did not agree to the last condition, the agreement was nevertheless concluded. In 1610, a Polish army led by Voivode Gonsevsky entered Moscow, who, as Vladislav's governor, was supposed to rule the country. However, the Polish intervention continues. Sweden, which took the overthrow of Shuisky as a release from all obligations, occupied a significant part of the north of Rus' and began the siege of Novgorod.
Under these conditions, in Ryazan in 1611, a First militia, whose goal was to liberate the country from invaders and enthrone the Russian Tsar. A significant part of the Tushino nobles and Cossacks, as well as a few boyars who supported the impostor, sided with him. The leader of the militia was the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov, who headed Council of the whole earth(the governing body of the militia). The militia besieged Moscow and after the battle on March 19, 1611, captured most of the city; however, China Town remained with the Poles. A long siege of Moscow began, complicated by contradictions between the leaders of the besiegers. They were most clearly manifested in the relationships between the leaders of the nobles and Cossacks - Prokopiy Lyapunov and the Cossack ataman Ivan Zarutsky. The desire of the nobles to restore the despotic state and serfdom did not satisfy the Cossacks. Constant clashes ended in the summer of 1611 with the murder of Lyapunov, after which most of the nobles left the militia.
In June 1611 Smolensk fell, the defense of which was led by boyar Mikhail Borisovich Shein. A month later, the Swedes captured Novgorod. In conditions when the independent existence of the Russian people was under threat, in the east of the country, in Nizhny Novgorod, in the fall of 1611, a Second militia. Its main organizer was the merchant Kuzma Minin, while Prince D.I., a member of the first militia, was elected as its leader. Pozharsky. Having collected great forces, the militia entered Moscow in May 1612, merging with the remnants of the first militia, and completely blockaded the Kremlin. October 26 (November 4) 1612 The Polish garrison in the Kremlin capitulated.
In January 1613 The 3emsky Council met in Moscow, at which 16-year-old Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of Patriarch Filaret (in the world - the former guardsman of the boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov), was elected the new Tsar of Rus'. This event is generally considered to mark the end of the Time of Troubles, although foreign intervention still continued. IN 1617 The Stolbovo Peace Treaty was concluded with the Swedes: Russia returned Novgorod, but lost the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland. IN 1618 In the village of Deulino, a truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Russia ceded Smolensk and a number of cities and lands located along the western border.
Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the 17th century.
After the Time of Troubles, Russia underwent a restoration process for almost three decades. Only from the middle of the 17th century. New, progressive trends begin to appear in the economy:
- Process in progress zoning– economic specialization of different regions. In the north-west, in the Novgorod, Pskov, and Smolensk lands, flax, hemp (hemp) and other industrial crops are cultivated. The northeast - Yaroslavl, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod lands - begins to specialize in cattle breeding. The black earth regions (their development began in the 17th century) and the Volga region grow wheat. The Moscow region (including Tula) is becoming a center of metallurgy.
- Peasant farming is undergoing noticeable development crafts: in the north-west - weaving, in the north-east - leather. The original Filimonovsky craft (Filimonovskaya toy) appears in the Tula region.
- The increasing exchange of agricultural and commercial products led to the emergence of trade centers - fairs. In total there were about 80 of them, three of which were central: Makaryevskaya (Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya (Southern Urals) and Svenskaya (near Bryansk).
- Production gains small-scale character (sales oriented).
- A new phenomenon in the economy has become manufactories– large-scale production with division of labor, mostly manual. Number of manufactories in Russia in the 17th century. was insignificant. The only industry in which they arose was metallurgy.
- The coin system was improved. Under Mikhail Fedorovich, the silver ruble, consisting of one hundred kopecks, became the national coin.
The presence of these trends, new for Russia, indicates the formation of single all-Russian market, i.e. global national system of commodity exchange.
Socially, the nobility is becoming an increasingly significant force. While continuing to give land to service people for their service, the government avoided taking them away. Increasingly, estates are inherited, i.e. are becoming more and more like fiefdoms and the state, interested in strengthening the nobility, contributes to this process.
IN 1649 G. Council Code Serfdom was finally formalized: the search for fugitives became indefinite. This enslavement was still of a formal nature - the state did not have the strength to actually attach the peasantry to the land. In addition, the Cathedral Code brought the estate and patrimony even closer together.
The authorities took measures to maintain the trading class. In 1653 it was adopted Trade charter, which established high protectionist tariffs.
Zemsky Sobors under the son of Mikhail Fedorovich Alexei Mikhailovich ( 1645-1676 gg.) cease to convene. The last full-fledged council was convened in December 1653 and decided to annex Ukraine to Russia. The tsarist government took control of the Boyar Duma, introducing into it duma clerks and nobles (up to 30% of the composition), who unconditionally supported the tsar. Thus, in Russia the transition to absolutism, i.e. unlimited power of the monarch.
Proof of the increased strength of the tsarist power and the weakening of the boyars was the abolition of 1682 city of localism. The boyars were thus deprived of class privileges when appointed to positions and, in this sense, were equal in rights with the nobles.
The administrative bureaucracy, which served as a support for the tsar, strengthened and expanded. The order system becomes cumbersome and clumsy: by the end of the 17th century. there were more than 70 orders, some of them were functional in nature - Ambassadorial, Local, Streletsky, etc., and some were territorial - Siberian, Kazan, Little Russian, etc. An attempt to control it with the help of the Secret Affairs order was unsuccessful.
On the ground in the 17th century. Elected governing bodies are finally becoming obsolete. All power passes into the hands of to the governors appointed from the center.
In the second half of the 17th century. appear in Russia new shelves(infantry) and Reiter regiments(cavalry), in which “willing people” - volunteers - served for a salary. At the same time, it was built on the Volga "Eagle"- the first ship capable of withstanding sea voyages.
One of the main problems during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Quiet ( 1645-76 gg.) the question arises of overcoming the voluntary international isolation of Russia. The king creates an island of European life on Lake Kukui - German settlement- a colony for emigrants from Europe. By his order it opens Slavic-Greek-Latin School(later, from 1687, an academy), training translators and diplomats. However, the expansion of ties with the West is hampered by the church, which, moreover, claims control over the state. This trend arose under Mikhail Fedorovich, since his father, Patriarch Filaret, actually ruled the country.
Alexey Mikhailovich, trying to undermine the economic power of the church, creates a Monastic Order to manage its property.
To weaken the influence of the church on public life and expand ties with the West, Alexei Mikhailovich begins 1654 d. church reform. Patriarch Nikon became the main ideologist of the reform. The reason for the reform was the need to correct church books (translations from Greek at the beginning of the 11th century), in which a lot of errors had accumulated over the centuries. The Greek originals became the model for correction, which in itself meant the church’s recognition of the possibility of cultural borrowing from Europe. In addition, church rituals were slightly changed: triplicate was introduced, the Catholic cross was allowed along with the Orthodox one, etc.
The reform had a colossal meaning:
- The centuries-old spiritual isolation of Russian society began to collapse. Conditions have been created for future global transformations of society.
- The state, having become the initiator of the reform, confirmed its priority right to govern society. This was confirmed by the Great Moscow Council of 1666-1667. The same council, at the insistence of Alexei, dismissed Nikon, who tried to strengthen his power.
- The reform led to Schism– the division of society into supporters and opponents of the reform (schismatics), led by Archpriest Avvakum. As a sign of protest, schismatics go to sparsely populated areas or commit burning– self-immolation. The fight against schismatics will reach its climax under Peter I and will continue almost until the middle of the 19th century. >
Russian foreign policy in the 17th century.
Russia's first priority in foreign policy was the return of Smolensk, the most important fortress on the western border, captured by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Time of Troubles.
IN 1632-1634 gg. Russia led Smolensk war, which ended in victory for Poland. The Peace of Polyanovsky in 1634 left Smolensk for the Poles. However, the war also had a positive effect - the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Vladislav IV, renounced his claims to the Russian throne.
In 1648, an uprising broke out in Ukraine, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. The uprising began with the victories of the Cossacks over the troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, from 1651 the Ukrainian army began to suffer defeats. Khmelnitsky turned to Russia for support. In 1653, the Zemsky Sobor in Moscow, and then, in 1654 G., Pereyaslavskaya Rada in Ukraine they spoke in favor of the reunification of Ukraine and Russia. After this, another Russian-Polish war began.
The first actions of the Russian troops were successful: in 1654, they returned Smolensk and captured a significant part of Belarus, which rebelled against the Poles. However, without bringing this war to an end, in 1656 Russia started a new war with Sweden, trying to break through to the Baltic Sea. The protracted struggle on two fronts continued with varying degrees of success. In the end, Russia achieved much less than desired. According to the Treaty of Kardis with Sweden (1661), Russia returned to it all the Baltic territories captured during the war. It was not possible to achieve complete success in the war with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: according to Andrusovo truce (1667 d.) Russia received Smolensk, Left Bank (Eastern) Ukraine and part of Right Bank Ukraine with Kiev and Zaporozhye Sich. Signed the Andrusovo Truce on the part of Russia A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin.
After these wars, Russia's relations with Ottoman Empire, claiming the territory of Left Bank Ukraine. In 1677, the united Ottoman-Crimean army besieged Chigirin, a Russian fortress in Ukraine. In 1678 it was captured, but the siege of Chigirin weakened the Ottomans and they no longer had enough strength for other military actions. IN 1681 An agreement was signed in Bakhchisarai, according to which the Turks recognized Russia’s right to its Ukrainian territories. In these events, Prince V.V. first became famous as a commander. Golitsyn.
IN 1686 Russia concluded the Eternal Peace with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, according to which Eastern Ukraine was forever assigned to our country. Under the same treaty, Russia became a member of the Holy League - a union of Austria, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Venice, created to fight the Ottoman Empire.
Popular movements in the 17th century.
Contemporaries called the 17th century rebellious. A characteristic feature of this time was uprisings in cities and on the outskirts of the state.
Reasons for popular protests:
- The increase in military spending, which forces the government of Alexei Mikhailovich to introduce more and more new forms of taxes.
- General strengthening of state control over society. Enslavement of the peasants.
- Church reform. Many popular uprisings became part of the schismatic movement.
In the mid-1640s. A high duty on salt was introduced, which caused the price to rise sharply. In 1647, the government abandoned the salt duty; however, in 1648 g. flared up "Salt Riot", directed against the initiators of its introduction: boyar Morozov, city mayor Shaklovity, Duma deacon Chisty, guest(merchant engaged in foreign trade) Vasily Shorin and others. The revolt was supported by the archers, who also suffered from rising salt prices and had not received a salary for a long time. Taken by surprise, the government extradited or executed most of the figures hated by the crowd.
In 1650, an uprising began in Pskov. It was suppressed by one of Alexei Mikhailovich’s comrades, boyar A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin.
In 1662, the government, experiencing an acute shortage of precious metals, tried to replace the silver coin with a copper one. It made all its payments in copper money, and collected taxes in silver. This policy caused "Copper Riot" In July 1662 An excited crowd burst into the village of Kolomenskoye, the summer residence of Alexei Mikhailovich, and the archers had difficulty coping with the rebels. The authorities temporarily refused to issue copper coins.
From the middle of the 17th century, in connection with the search for fugitive peasants in the southern regions, the government's relations with the Don Cossacks became complicated. Constant conflicts between them led to the Cossack uprising of Stepan Razin.
At the first stage of the uprising (1669-1670 - so-called. Hike for zipuns) - Razin makes predatory campaigns in Persia and attacks trade caravans. Having plundered the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Razin returned to Astrakhan with great booty and the glory of an invincible leader.
In the spring of 1670, the second stage of the uprising began. Razin openly opposed the tsarist government. The participation of peasants in his army gave the campaign an anti-serfdom character, so with reservations it can be called a peasant war. Having captured Tsaritsyn in April, Razin returned to Astrakhan in June and proclaimed his power here. In the summer of 1670, Saratov and Samara went over to Razin’s side, and peasant unrest thus covered a vast territory. Only near Simbirsk a large but poorly trained and armed peasant army was defeated. Razin fled to the Don where he was captured and handed over to the authorities by the rich ( homely) Cossacks. In 1671, Stepan Razin was executed in Moscow.
Another popular performance was Solovetskoe uprising 1667-1676 – one of the brightest pages in the history of the Schism. The uprising, which was purely anti-reform in nature, was suppressed only after the betrayal of one of the defenders of the Solovetsky Monastery.
17th century culture
The main trend in the development of culture of this period was secularization, manifested in all areas of culture.
XVII century was characterized by a noticeable increase in literacy among various segments of the population. Are becoming widespread teaching aids. Was especially popular "Primer" Vasily Burtsev (1633).
Secondary schools appeared where they studied foreign languages and other subjects (1640s - the private school of boyar F. Rtishchev for young nobles; 1650s - a school in the Chudov Monastery; 1660s - a public school for clerks). In 1687, the Slavic-Greek-Latin School acquired the status of an academy and became the first higher educational institution in Russia.
A handwritten newspaper, Chimes, was distributed at the royal court.
Works of social thought at the beginning of the century were created under the fresh impression of the Time of Troubles, the turbulent events of which were viewed in them from various points of view. Clerk Ivan Timofeev in "Vremennik"(1620s) condemned Ivan the Terrible and Godunov, who exterminated the boyars and thereby, in his opinion, weakened the tsarist power. Abraham Palitsyn in his "Tales" blamed the Russian people for forgetting religion and morality.
In the middle and second half of the 17th century. the works of Simeon of Polotsk appear (the first monuments of poetry and drama), "Policy" Yuri Krizhanich, which substantiates the usefulness of autocracy for the development of the country. Simeon Polotsky became the teacher of the older children of Alexei Mikhailovich.
Among the works containing sharp criticism of state power and the official church, stands out "The Life of Archpriest Avvakum" - a kind of autobiography written by the spiritual leader of the Schism.
The process of secularization in literature is especially clearly manifested in the growing popularity of works in such genres as everyday stories and satire.
Everyday stories were devoted to the themes of the clash between the younger and older generations, the moral choices of the heroes, and their personal experiences ( "The Tale of Misfortune"- mid-17th century; "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn"- 1660s; "The Tale of Frol Skobeev"- 1680s). The main characters are merchants and poor nobles, as a rule, people of an adventurous disposition who easily reject the patriarchal foundations and moral standards of the past.
Social conflicts of the 17th century. gave rise to another genre - satire, which parodied the lives ( "The Lay of Hawk Moth"), legal proceedings ( “Shemyakin Court”, “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”), ridiculed the life of monks ( "Kalyazin Petition").
The tent style finally became the dominant style of church architecture. However, already in the second half of the 17th century. he is gradually losing his position. Churches of the mid-17th century, as a rule, violated the cross-domed patterns, were distinguished by asymmetry and extremely rich decorative decoration of the facades (Moscow churches of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, Trinity in Nikitniki; Yaroslavl churches of Elijah the Prophet, John Chrysostom). This style of architecture is called "Naryshkinskoe"(or Moscow, or northern) baroque. Of the civil buildings, the most remarkable were the Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin and the wooden palace of Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye (which has not survived to this day).
The Kremlin Armory Chamber controlled the activities of painters. In icon painting of the first half of the 17th century. The “Stroganov School” continued to dominate, whose masters (Procopius Chirin) devoted all their art to the careful and technically perfect execution of the canons. In the second half of the 17th century. A notable phenomenon is the painting of Simon Ushakov, in which realistic tendencies are already evident: he paints icons taking into account the anatomical structure of the face, using chiaroscuro and perspective. ( "Savior Not Made by Hands"). New features pictorial art appeared in parsunah– portraits of real persons (Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, young Peter I), made in an iconographic manner.
The more a person is able to respond to the historical and universal, the broader his nature, the richer his life and the more capable such a person is of progress and development.
F. M. Dostoevsky
The Rebellious Age is the name of the 17th century in Russian history. It is most often said that the name of the century is associated with the large number of uprisings and riots at that time. But this is only one side of the coin. The other side lies in the rebellious reflection of the church and classes of society.
Causes
The reasons that made the Rebellious Age possible:
- Increase in taxes. After the Time of Troubles, the state tried by all means to attract money to the treasury.
- Strengthening serfdom and completing the process of enslaving the peasants.
- Wars. At this time there were wars within the country (the Time of Troubles), as well as confrontation mainly with Poland and Sweden. The people are tired of wars, which, as we know, are draining society (demographically, financially).
- Church schism. Almost everything in the church structure changed, so naturally ordinary people did not like it. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the authorities persecuted the Old Believers.
Popular uprisings
The 17th century is called the “Rebellious” largely because of the popular movements (riots and uprisings) that arose with great regularity and were distinguished by their scope. In the Rebellious Age there were 6 major uprisings (one is called the Peasants' War) and a huge number of small uprisings that are impossible to even count. The main popular movements of the era are presented in the table below.
| Event and date | Regions covered | Consequences |
|---|---|---|
| Salt riot. 1648 | Moscow, Voronezh, Kursk, Kozlov | The Council Code of 1649 was adopted. The rebels killed many boyars. |
| Urban uprisings of 1650 | Novgorod and Pskov | The uprising was suppressed by the tsarist army. Order has been restored. |
| Copper Riot. 1662 | Moscow | The state stopped minting copper money. |
| The uprising of V. R. Usa. 1666 | Don | Shooting of the rebels. |
| Razin's revolt. 1667 - 1671 | Don, Volga region | The uprising was suppressed by the tsarist army. Razin was executed. |
| Solovetsky uprising. 1667-1671 | Solovetsky Monastery | Exacerbation of contradictions between the church and Old Believers. Persecution of Old Believers. |
Please note that the regular army was used to suppress most uprisings. And not small units, but the most combative ones. It is believed that if there are 2-3 major popular unrests per century, then there is a problem in the country. In the 17th century in Russia there was 6 major disturbances and more than a dozen small ones, and they all happened in a little more than 20 years(1648-1671), which indicates a critical point in people's patience, which was overcome at this time. Do not forget also that at the beginning of all these movements Russia had just overcome the Time of Troubles, which also overlapped the 17th century.
The popular uprisings of the 17th century clearly show that the country was in need of change. The old order had become obsolete, and something new was needed. As a result, at the beginning of the 18th century, the mood of Russian society and the desires of Peter I coincided - large-scale reforms began in Russia.
Uprisings map
Map of popular uprisings in Russia in the 17th century.
International conflicts
One of the reasons for popular dissatisfaction with the authorities and the situation in the country was wars. Russia fought the following international wars in the 17th century:
- Russo-Swedish War (1656-1661)
- Russo-Turkish War (1677-1681)
Church in the 17th century
Separately, it should be noted that the Rebellious Age refers not only to popular protests, but also to church life. A serious crisis was also brewing there, the climax of which was the church schism. It is also called Nikon's reform.
In fairness, it should be noted that the need for church reforms in Russia in the 17th century was objectively ripe. But the methods for their implementation left much to be desired. In a certain sense, Nikon was very similar to Peter 1. Nikon remade the Orthodox Church in a Greek way, and Peter remade Russia itself in a Dutch way. But the main thing that these people have in common is that they very easily broke with the past. And these breaks occurred with such an inflection that Russia took a very long time to come to its senses spiritually and physically after Nikon and after Peter 1.
The rebellious age almost completely changed the Russian church: customs, rituals, icons, books, and so on changed. Imagine how much this affected people. Even today, if the church decides to completely change its rituals, this will lead to popular unrest. In the 17th century, when people were more devout, this caused an inevitable and inevitable reaction from the population.
The history of Russia in the 17th century is a time of change and rebellion. This era knew many rulers from Boris Godunov to Peter I. A time of bloody coups and palace conspiracies, betrayals, reforms and unrest.
The accession of Boris Godunov in 1598, although it happened at first glance by chance: with the accidental murder of his son by Ivan the Terrible, is, according to historians, not such. A series of secret conspiracies at court between the boyars and the Godunov family, the secret death of Ivan IV himself, and Boris’s strong political position contributed to his ascension to the throne. He was a progressive and far-sighted politician who advocated the restoration of all ties with Western Europe. His goal was the comprehensive development of the state, and for this he attracted to the state not only military reformers, but also scientists, doctors, industrialists and traders. He sent talented compatriots to study various sciences abroad, and wanted to found a university in Rus'. But all these innovations were actively opposed by the Russian conservative clergy, which subsequently contributed to the overthrow of his son Fyodor Godunov from the throne after the death of Boris in 1605.
The King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund III conceived an insidious plan to overthrow Godunov from the throne. Taking advantage of strong rumors about Boris Godunov as a regicide, he decided to install a “true” tsar on the throne. For these purposes, a fugitive monk approached, posing as Dmitry, the heir of Ivan the Terrible. Sigismund endowed him with a detachment of four thousand, which was subsequently joined not only by the villagers and townspeople supporting False Dmitry, but also by government troops. With this powerful support, in June 1605, False Dmitry came to Moscow and installed himself on the throne. Having become a ruler, he pardoned the freedom of prisoners under Boris Godunov, increased the salaries of officials, fought against bribery, and opened borders for subjects to travel outside the state. Along with this, False Dmitry had to fulfill preliminary agreements with Sigismund, namely, he married Marina Mniszech to weaken the position of the Orthodox Church, and confiscated many lands from them. He bestowed money and privileges on the nobles to whom he owed his ascension to the throne. All this, as well as the threat of an upcoming war with the Turks, caused outrage among the boyars and clergy. The indignation grew into an uprising and False Dmitry I was killed in 1606, and the body was handed over to the people for desecration.
Three days after the overthrow and murder of the liar, the people gathered on Red Square to decide the question of the future ruler of the state. The Shuisky family enjoyed great support from the church and nobles, and Vasily Shuisky’s people did not fail to take advantage of this. At a general meeting, they shouted the name of their prince, and the crowd supported him. After ascending the throne, Tsar Vasily provided comprehensive support to the Orthodox Church, and in particular to Metropolitan Hermogenes. Despite the wide support of the church and past military merits, Vasily’s reign was not calm. The Polish mercenary Ivan Bolotnikov (1606) and False Dmitry II and his wife Marina Mnishek (1607) tried to challenge the right to power. Shuisky was able to suppress all these uprisings, but still the pressure exerted by Procopius Lyapunov and the nobles forever shook the throne under Shuisky. He was dethroned and handed over to the Polish king Sigismund, and was later tonsured a monk (1610).
The period from 1610 to 1612 is known as the "Seven Boyars". The leadership of the state passed into the hands of seven boyars led by Fyodor Mstislavsky. Their main task was the restoration of peace and order in Rus' and the accession of a legitimate ruler, but the boyars did not have unity on the question of who should become this ruler. Some supported the idea of transferring power to the son of the Polish king Sigismund and the transition of Rus' to the Catholic Church. Others were not against the heir to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but were ardent supporters of the Orthodox Church. The third was advocating for the accession of False Dmitry II. Against the backdrop of all these events, the discontent of the people and the desire to expel all the gentry from Russian soil are growing. So the merchant Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky gathered a militia and marched on Moscow, where their actions were successful, and in October 1612 the Poles were forced to flee the capital.
At the beginning of the next year, a Zemsky Sobor was held, but in which it was decided to place the descendant of Ivan the Terrible, Mikhail Romanov, on the throne. This was a formal coronation, since all power remained in the hands of Metropolitan Philaret, until the death of the metropolitan in 1633. After his death, Mikhail Romanov ruled for another 12 years before his death. In general, during this time, thanks to skillful leadership and the attraction of foreign capital, significant progress was achieved in the country's economy and industry.
After the death of his father in 1645, Alexey Romanov became the successor to the throne. For a long time he was secular and entrusted the rule of the state to his teacher, boyar Boris Morozov, which the latter did not fail to take advantage of in his own interests. Extortionate exactions from subjects, bribery, arbitrariness on the part of officials - all this characterizes the first time of Alexei's reign. That period was faced with two major riots: “salt” and “copper”. The discontent of the people grew so much that in 1648, during a religious procession, rebellious Muscovites carried out a pogrom of the houses of the boyars and clerks. The Streltsy refused to contain the rebellion and actually took the side of the angry people. Most of the boyars were torn to pieces, while the sovereign begged to spare at least his favorite Morozov. The people obeyed the tsar, and the guilty boyar was sent to a monastery. In order to calm down the townspeople, the boyars invited Muscovites home for lunch, and the archers were given additional salaries. After some time, with these measures the boyars were able to calm the anger of the townspeople. The Tsar, for his part, began to distribute land to landowners and reduced taxes, and agreed to convene a Zemsky Sobor to solve pressing problems. At the meeting, the council decided to develop a new set of laws, which was adopted literally in a matter of months and was in force for 200 years. The code of laws included 25 chapters and regulated most areas of civil legal activity, and provided for severe penalties for their violations, including the death penalty. All segments of the population came under the protection of the Code, except peasants and slaves, who remained completely defenseless. Tax privileges from settlements were also taken away. The death penalty awaited not only the instigator of the riot, but also the one who reported it. New law finally consolidated serfdom in Russia.
In 1676, Tsar Alexei died, and power passed to his son Fedor. Since he was not particularly healthy, his reign was not long. During the years of his reign, the military system underwent significant reform. Positions began to be occupied not only by boyars and nobles, but by people with merit and dignity. A census was taken in 1678, and a year later the taxation system was changed. As a result of the war with the Ottoman Empire, the lands of Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv were recognized as Russia. In 1681, Fyodor Alekseevich stood at the origins of the creation of the Typographic School.
In 1682, Fyodor Alekseevich died and the question arose about the next successor. Both his brothers Peter and Ivan were young and in poor health, and there were palace conspiracies and the Streletsky rebellion. In order to avoid further pogroms and riots, a hasty decision was made to recognize Ivan as the first tsar, and Peter as the second. The Sagittarius demanded that his elder sister Sophia become regent under Ivan, and Peter and his mother retired to a palace near Moscow. Sophia was an ambitious and prudent ruler who successfully strengthened Russia's foreign policy ties. In the meantime, the heirs to the throne grew up, but if the first successor, Ivan Alekseevich, had no claims to the throne, then Peter, on the contrary, tried in every possible way to overthrow Sophia, which he subsequently succeeded in. So in 1689, as a result of the Streletsky conspiracy and the betrayal of her inner circle, Sophia was forced to cut her hair as a nun.
After the overthrow of Sophia, the actual rule of the country was taken over by Petra's mother Natalya Kirillovna. All reforms and innovations of Sophia were stopped, while the heir's mother and her henchmen indulged their whims and wasted the treasury. Peter I was absorbed in the study of military affairs and shipbuilding. In 1694, Natalya Kirillovna died, and the reins of power passed to her son Peter. The century has ended, and the era of a new ruler and a new Russia has begun.
17th century in Russia: a century of great unrest and great changes.
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