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The main problems and characteristic features of modern philosophy. Philosophy of the New Age. Main problems of the theory of knowledge

The philosophy of modern times covers the period from the 16th to the 11th centuries. This is the time of the formation and formalization of the natural sciences, which emerged from philosophy. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, mechanics are turning into independent sciences.

The line outlined in the Renaissance is further developed. At the same time, new tasks and priorities arise in philosophy. The focus of the new philosophy is the theory of knowledge and the development of a method of knowledge common to all sciences. It is impossible to cognize God, nature, man, society, according to philosophers of the New Age, without first finding out the laws of the cognizing Reason. Unlike other sciences, philosophy must study thinking, its laws and methods, with

from which the construction of all sciences begins. This issue is dealt with by F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke, G. Leibniz.

The philosophy of this period is characterized by a number of attitudes:

Promotion of science to the rank of the most important activity of humanity. It is science (=reason) that can enrich humanity, save it from troubles and suffering, and raise society to new stage development, ensure social progress (F. Bacon).

Complete secularization of science. The synthesis of science with religion, faith with reason is impossible. No authorities are recognized except the authority of reason itself (T. Hobbes).

The development of sciences and man's ultimate subjugation of nature is possible when the main method thinking, the method of “pure reason”, capable of acting in all sciences (R. Descartes).

In the search for a new “super method”, philosophers were divided into supporters of empiricism (“empirio” - experience) and rationalism (“ration” - mind).

Empiricists (F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, J. Locke, etc.) believed that the only source of knowledge is experience. Experience is associated with sensations, perceptions, and ideas. The content of all knowledge of a person or humanity is reduced to experience. “There is nothing in cognition that was not previously contained in sensations” - this is the motto of the empiricist-sensualists (“sens” - feeling, feeling).

There is no innate knowledge, concepts or ideas in the human soul and mind. The soul and mind of a person are initially pure, like a waxed tablet (tabula rasa - a clean board), and already sensations and perceptions “write” their “writing” on this tablet. Since sensations can deceive, we test them through an experiment that corrects sensory data. Knowledge must go from the particular, experienced to generalizations and the development of theories. This is the inductive method of moving the mind, along with experiment, and is the true method in philosophy and all sciences.

Rationalists (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz) believed that experience based on human sensations cannot be the basis of general scientific method. Perceptions and sensations are illusory. We may feel something that is not there (for example, pain in a lost limb), and we may not feel some sounds, colors, etc. Experimental data, like experimental data, are always doubtful. But in the Mind itself there are intuitively clear and distinct ideas. The main thing is that a person undoubtedly thinks. This basic - intuitive (pre-experimental) idea - is: “I think, therefore I exist” (Descartes). Then, using the rules of deduction (from the general to the specific), we can deduce the possibility of the existence of God, nature and other people. The conclusion of the rationalists: the human mind contains, regardless of experience, a number of ideas; these ideas exist not on the basis of sensations, but before sensations. By developing the ideas embedded in the mind, a person can gain true knowledge about the world. Certainly. We draw information about the world from sensations, therefore both experience and experiment are important components of knowledge about the world, but the basis of the true method must be sought in the mind itself. The true method of all sciences and philosophy is similar to mathematical methods. The latter are given outside of direct experience; begin with general, but extremely clear and precise formulations. Mathematics uses the usual method, following from general ideas to particular conclusions, there is no experiment in it.

More on topic 1. Main problems and directions of philosophy of the New Age:

  1. Section 4. Philosophy and science: the problem of self-determination of philosophy in the culture of modern times

XVI-XVIII centuries The focus of the new philosophy is the theory of knowledge and the development of a method of knowledge common to all sciences. It is impossible to cognize God, nature, man, society, according to philosophers of the New Age, without first finding out the laws of the cognizing Reason. F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, J. Locke, G. Leibniz.

What is the world around us and what is the place and purpose of man in the world? What underlies everything that exists: material or spiritual? Is the world subject to any laws? Can a person know the world around him, what does this knowledge represent? The problem of knowledge, scientific methods, social structure. Problems of epistemology come to the fore. The connection between the sensory and the rational is revealed, the problems of truth and other epistemological issues are explored.

Two main directions of philosophy of the New Age:

1. Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge.

2. Rationalism (Latin: rational) highlights the logical basis of science, recognizes reason as the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth.

22. The emergence of a natural science picture of the world: G. Galileo’s contribution to resolving the issue of the objectivity of knowledge.

In ontology (starting with G. Galileo), the concept of matter is radically revised.

1) It consists of tiny particles (atoms) that have certain forms and speeds. Identification of matter and substance.

2) Matter is a substantial form of nature, which is characterized by spatiotemporal and quantitative attributes (place, time, movement).

3) Matter was equal to itself and unchangeable.

In the fight against scholasticism. Aristotelian-Ptolemaic tradition. G. developed the principles of mechanistic. materialism. In his understanding of matter, he was close to the atomists; he proposed the idea of ​​material substance as a single unchanging basis of nature, which has a certain definition. structure and requiring exclusively mechanics and mathematics for its description. means - “figures, numbers and movements.”

In epistemology, he developed the idea of ​​the boundlessness of “extensive” knowledge of nature, noting at the same time the possibility of achieving absolute. truth, i.e. “intensive” knowledge. G. adhered to the theory of dual truth, which was progressive at that time, trying to delimit the scientific. research from theology.

The starting point of knowledge, according to G., is sensory experience, which, however, in itself does not provide reliable knowledge. It is achieved by systematic real or mental experimentation, based on strict quantitative and mathematical principles. description. G. identified two main ones. method experimental research nature. Analytical by the “resolution” method using the means of mathematics, abstractions of idealization and passage to the limit.

Reliable knowledge is ultimately realized in an explanatory theoretical framework. scheme as the unity of the synthetic and analytical, sensual and abstract.

23. The difference between the method of natural sciences and the method of the humanities. Question 46.

24. German classical philosophy: optional

a) philosophy of I. Kant;

b) philosophy of G.V.F. Hegel.

The highest achievement of German classical philosophy was the dialectic of Hegel (1770-1831). whose great merit is that he was the first to present the entire natural, historical and spiritual world in the form of a process, i.e. in continuous movement, change, transformation and development, and made an attempt to reveal the internal connection of this movement and development. The significance of Hegel's philosophy lay in the fact that it presented in a systematic form the dialectical worldview and the corresponding dialectical method of research. Three laws of dialectics (the essence of the history of development). 1. The law of transition of quantitative relations into qualitative ones (when quantitative relations change after a certain stage, a change in quality occurs due to the destruction of the measure). 2. Law of direction of development (negation of negation). Naked negation - something that comes after of this object, completely destroying it. Dialectical negation: something from the first object is preserved - a reproduction of this object, but in a different quality. Water is ice. Development occurs in a spiral. 3. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. The reason for development is the unity and struggle of opposites. Opposites interact, that is, they fight. The struggle leads to three outcomes: mutual destruction, illumination of one of the parties, or compromise.

25. Non-classical European philosophy of the 19th century: optional

a) philosophy of A. Schopenhauer;

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) follower of Kant. Supporter of voluntarism (will is the highest principle of existence).

b) philosophy of S. Kierkegaard;

In the views of the founder of existentialism, Kierkegaard, objective being expresses the “unreal existence” of a person.

c) philosophy of F. Nietzsche.

Philosophy of life. In Phil. life on the first the plan puts forward the non-thinking abilities of a person: feeling, will or intuition. Consciousness is contrasted with the unconscious, the deep source of human behavior. Development for Nietzsche has no meaning. Regression. But the formation of a new person is possible. The concept of eternal return. The principle of conservation of force in the universe, energy, etc. Realizing the absurdity of his approach based on science, he uses an allegorical image - an endless road lying behind us, and a gate in front of us with the inscription “moment”. "Knowledge is power." Science can only skim the surface. The point is to possess an object, not to know it. Science is a convenient delusion; it does not need the world as such. Immoralism is confrontation with traditional (Christian) morality. Christianity overturns traditional concepts of good and evil. Nietzsche believed that religion should be abolished, and in fact it was abolished. Should appear new type people - a “blond beast”. They will behave according to the laws of this race, and in relation to others the way they want. Politics is power without morality. The patient is a parasite of society. The weak need to be pushed, to be helped to fall. Stages of human spiritual development. 1. A camel is an easy-going animal. I have to carry everything that is laid down and endure all the hardships. 2. In the desert he transforms into a lion - I want, I have the right, I can. Destructive nature. 3. Next, after satisfying the desire, the lion turns into a child. The child creates. Highest stage. It will come only after the first two - slavish dependence and evil inclination. He stands for honesty, health, etc., for people’s desire for art.

New time - this is a time of faith in the expediency, the meaning of social development, historical process, into the objective, natural nature of social development, subordinate to a logical scheme. The basis of expediency and purposefulness is reason.
The main problems of modern philosophy:
1. connection of human consciousness with the sociocultural environment
2. participation of human consciousness in changes in the historical process
3. autonomization of the philosophy of history as a special field of knowledge
The philosophers of this period identified themselves with the enlightened classes of enlightened Europe. The lower social classes were the passive object of influence of philosophers.
Objectives of philosophy:
1. finding out and then explaining to people their natural ability to know, and, consequently, to conquer nature
2. development of methods for cognition of the general foundations of the cognitive process
3. elimination of ignorance and abscurantism (hostile attitude towards science)
4. Elimination of social injustice, poverty and tyranny

The prerequisites for the formation of modern philosophy are associated with the transfer of the interest of thinkers from the problems of scholasticism and theology to the problems of natural philosophy. During the same period, there were attempts by philosophy to re-found natural science, combining experiment and reflection as the basis theoretical method. In the 17th century, the interest of philosophy was directed to questions of knowledge - F. Bacon developed the doctrine of induction, Descartes the concept of method in philosophy.

In the foreground are problems of epistemology. Two main directions of philosophy:
1. Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge.
a) idealistic (Berkin, Hume) Empirical experience is a combination of sensations and
ideas, the size of the world = the size of experience.
b) materialistic (Bacon, Hobbes) - the source of sensory experience noun. external world.
2. Rationalism (Latin: rational) highlights the logical basis of science, recognizes reason as the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth.



The philosophy of modern times covers the period of the 17th - first half of the 19th century century and is divided into several stages:
1. Enlightenment of the 17th – early 18th centuries,
2. German classical philosophy of the 18th – first half of the 19th century.
In the economy of this time, manufacturing production and the associated division of industrial labor became widespread; more and more more people machines began to be used. In the political sphere, new ideas about human rights and freedoms, about the rule of law, began to be developed, and methods for putting these ideas into practice began to be developed. In the cultural sphere, scientific knowledge began to come to the fore. In science and mathematics were made outstanding discoveries who prepared the scientific and technological revolution. Philosophy was at the forefront of all these changes. She foreshadowed, stimulated and generalized them.
Innovation- the most important distinguishing feature philosophy of the New Age compared to scholasticism. But it should be especially emphasized that the first philosophers of the modern era were students of neo-scholastics. However, with all the strength of their minds and souls they sought to revise, test the truth and strength of the inherited knowledge.
The search for rationally justified and provable truths of philosophy, comparable to the truths of science, is another feature of the philosophy of the New Age. But the main difficulty was that philosophical truths, as it was later discovered, cannot be of an axiomatic nature and cannot be proven by methods accepted in mathematics.
Rationalism can be understood as confidence in the power and ability of the mind (especially an enlightened mind, guided by the right method) to comprehend the secrets of nature, to know the world around us and man himself, with the help of common sense to solve practical life problems and ultimately build a society on reasonable principles. And be sure to comprehend God with the help of reason.
But philosophers of the XVII-XVIII centuries. were interested not only in rational knowledge, but also in knowledge through the senses - they treated it with special attention, its reliability was proven by supporters of empiricism: Gassendi, Locke, and French enlighteners. But also Descartes,

Spinoza and Leibniz, who are considered rationalists, also paid considerable attention to sensory experience (which, however, was critical), will and “passions of the soul,” affects, which, from their point of view, are subject and amenable to control by reason. In a word, the 17th and 18th centuries can rightly be considered centuries of rationalism. However, one should not attribute self-confident rationalism to the modern era, since the philosophers of this time objectively examined the shortcomings and limitations of the human mind.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Proceedings:
- New Organon
- Work on the dignity and growth of sciences
- New Antarctica (utopia)
Talked about significance correct method, but admitted errors in knowledge. One of the reasons is the worship of “idols”:
- idols of the race (delusions inherent in this human race)
- idols of the cave (superstition)
- market idols (the habit of relying on popular opinions and judgments)

Inductive methodology
Bacon considered it necessary to create a correct method with the help of which one could gradually ascend from individual facts to broad generalizations. In ancient times, all discoveries were made only spontaneously, while the correct method should be based on experiments (purposefully conducted experiments), which should be systematized in “natural history.” In general, induction appears in Bacon not only as one of the types of logical inference, but also as logic scientific discovery, a methodology for developing concepts based on experience. Baconian inductivism was developed in the 19th century in the works of John Stuart Mill and others.

1. Socio-historical and cultural characteristics New time. Formation of science.

2. Characteristic features and main problems of modern philosophy.

3. Philosophy of F. Bacon.

4. Empiricism of T. Hobbes and sensationalism of J. Locke.

5. Formation of subjective idealistic philosophy (J. Berkeley, D. Hume).

1. Socio-historical and cultural features of the New Age. Formation of science.

New time(XVII – XIX centuries) – a period of major changes in the history of mankind.

In socio-economic terms This period is characterized by the establishment of a new, capitalist mode of production. The main socio-political forces are the classes of capitalists and wage workers. The change in the social system was accompanied by bourgeois revolutions (1609 in the Netherlands, 1640 in England, later in France). In the 17th century England was the most industrially developed country; the processes of formation of bourgeois relations took place here at the fastest pace.

The change in social system has brought significant changes to spiritual life of society, led to a weakening of the spiritual dictatorship of the Church. The religious worldview still retains significant ideological influence in society, but is losing its dominant position in relation to science and philosophy. The new worldview laid down in the Renaissance, in which the main value is man and his mind, is finally affirmed.



the formation and development of bourgeois relations, which entailed significant changes in the economy, politics, social relations, became the objective basis formation of science as a special system of knowledge, independent type spiritual activity and social institution. there was a need to apply scientific knowledge in production and social practice. speculative scholastic disciplines are giving way to a new science that has an experimental, experimental character. Under the influence of developing capitalism, science is becoming the most important productive force. The formation of science as an independent phenomenon is associated with the appearance in the 16th – 17th centuries. works of Kepler, Galileo, Newton. Independent branches of natural science knowledge gradually emerged; mathematics, physics, and mechanics received the greatest development during this period. In the 17th century The first communities of scientists were formed, and in the 18th century early XIX centuries science becomes the basis of university education, i.e. becomes professional.

Scientists and philosophers of this time see their main task in developing human cognitive abilities and increasing his power over nature.

2. Main problems and character traits philosophy of the New Age.

The philosophy of modern times developed in close cooperation with science, primarily mathematics, physics, and mechanics. The most important object of philosophical analysis is the nature of scientific knowledge, its sources, methods scientific knowledge. Come to the fore problems of epistemology .

In the same time ontological problems also have not lost their relevance. The rapid development of science has necessitated the creation of a new, holistic picture of the world based on scientific ideas. In this regard, philosophy was faced with the task of systematizing and generalizing factual material, establishing cause-and-effect relationships between natural phenomena, and substantiating the unity of man and nature.

Anthropological issues is being updated in modern European philosophy in connection with the dissemination of a new view of man, in which priority is given to his cognitive and creative-transformative abilities.

Radical socio-political transformations in the modern era, changes in the social and class structure of society, and bourgeois revolutions led to the interest of thinkers in problems of social development. A significant place in the works of many philosophers is occupied by Problems social philosophy : government system, the origin and essence of the state, the problem of society and the individual, ways and means of transforming social relations.

Characteristic features of new European philosophy.

1) The ideal of modern philosophy becomes accurate knowledge; a special role in obtaining it is given to mechanics as the science of the movement of material bodies in space. As a result, the key principle in philosophy becomes mechanism, which considers a person and the world around him as a complex mechanism that functions and develops according to the laws of mechanics.

2) In the philosophy of modern times, a new idea of ​​the goals of scientific knowledge is emerging. A fundamentally new type of philosophizing – rational-pragmatic, according to which scientific knowledge should have a practical orientation and serve to solve economic and social problems. A characteristic feature of new European thinking is practicality.

3) In resolving the issue of the sources and methods of knowing the world in the theory of knowledge of the New Age, the following directions emerge: rationalism, empiricism, sensationalism. Rationalism(Latin rationalis - reasonable) (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza) - an epistemological principle that considers the activity of the human mind to be the main means of knowledge. Empiricism(Greek empeiria - experience) (F. Bacon, T. Hobbes) recognizes experimental, experimental data as the most important source of knowledge about the world. Sensationalism(Latin sensus - sensation) (J. Locke), emphasizes the special role of the senses in the process of cognition.

4) Due to the fact that religion is losing its influence on the scientific and philosophical worldview, new principles are being formed that determine the attitude towards Christian teaching:

- deism- an ideological movement that recognizes God as the source, the primary cause of existence, but assumes that after creation the world develops according to its own laws, God does not interfere in the processes taking place. The principles of deism are reflected both in philosophy (*F. Bacon, French enlighteners Voltaire, Rousseau, etc.) and in science (*I. Newton, in whose teaching God is considered the source of movement and development of the world, but it is believed that after creation, the world develops according to its own internal laws);

- atheism(formed in the 18th – 19th centuries) – a movement that, from a scientific point of view, denies the existence of God (*La Mettrie, Holbach, Diderot).

3. Philosophy of F. Bacon.

Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626) - English thinker and statesman, founder of philosophical materialism and experimental science of the New Age. The main works of F. Bacon: “New Organon” - a work on the methodology of scientific knowledge, “New Atlantis” - a social utopia that reveals the role of science and technology for the comprehensive development of society, etc.

F. Bacon made scientific knowledge the main subject of philosophical understanding; his focus was on questions about the goals and methods of scientific knowledge. The task of science, according to Bacon, is to reveal natural patterns, which will lead to the expansion of human capabilities and strengthening of his power over nature (“ Knowledge is power"). Scientific knowledge must meet the practical needs of society and serve to solve economic and social problems. Therefore, the question of the reliability of knowledge comes to the fore.

In his works, Bacon develops materialistic views of nature. He claims that the first cause of the world is God, but further the world is subject to the action of natural laws (deism). Therefore, Bacon positively resolves the question of the knowability of the world. However, he argues that on the path of knowledge there are many misconceptions that prevent the acquisition of reliable knowledge. These misconceptions (" idols") constantly accompany the cognitive process and indicate its complexity and inconsistency. Some of the idols are due to imperfection human nature, others are related to influence external factors. Bacon identifies 4 types of “idols” of knowledge:

1) " idols of the family“are a consequence of the limitations of the human mind, the imperfection of the senses;

2) " idols of the cave» due to individual characteristics person: each person has his own internal subjective world (his own “cave”), which influences his assessment of reality;

3) " market idols" arise in the process of communication and are caused by misunderstanding due to misuse words, linguistic expressions;

4) " theater idols"appear as a result of the influence of scientific and philosophical authorities, their uncritical assimilation.

Bacon considers the main means of overcoming “idols” to be the choice of the correct method (“path”) of knowledge. Bacon reveals the problem of choosing a scientific method allegorically and describes 3 ways of knowledge:

1) " spider's path"represents an attempt to deduce the truth purely rational means, through theoretical reflection;

2) " ant's path» involves only the use of empirical, experimental data without their theoretical generalization;

3) " the path of the bee"based on the unity of the sensual and rational knowledge, on the movement from obtaining experimental data to their theoretical understanding.

Thus, Bacon justifies the experimental-inductive method scientific research. Induction involves moving from the particular to the general, from individual facts to general provisions and conclusions. According to Bacon, knowledge is based on sensory data, which requires experimental verification and then theoretical generalization.

The main significance of Bacon's philosophy lies in its empirical and practical orientation, in the attempt to develop an effective method of scientific knowledge.

4. The empiricism of T. Hobbes and the sensationalism of J. Locke.

Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679) – English philosopher, bright representative empiricism and mechanism. [ He was born a very sick child; doctors believed that he would not survive; but he lived until he was 92, played tennis until he was 70, and at 86 he translated the Iliad and Odyssey from ancient Greek..]

In his views on nature, Hobbes takes the position of mechanistic materialism. The world for him it is not a living organism, but a collection of material bodies that are located in a certain geometric order, appear and disappear. The most important properties of any body - extension and shape, movement and rest. Differences between bodies appear only in quantitative relations. Hobbes understands movement in nature only as a mechanical process: movement is the movement of a body from one place to another. Space and time depend on the movement of bodies: there is no time in general, but only time in specific material systems.

IN theories of knowledge Hobbes combines elements of empiricism and rationalism. He believes that the source and basis of knowledge are sensations. Cognitive process- this is the comparison, combination and separation of ideas that arise on the basis of sensory sensations. Hobbes drew attention to the role of language in the process of cognition. Words are signs that designate certain objects and phenomena and convey our ideas to others, therefore language is necessary remedy knowledge and communication of people.

An important place in the philosophy of T. Hobbes occupies doctrine of the state. His work “Leviathan” provides a rationale for the theory of social contract. According to the philosopher, man is by nature selfish and ambitious, therefore natural state society is a “war of all against all.” But human nature also gives rise to the desire for self-preservation. To ensure its security, to maintain peace and implement the laws created by the human mind, there is a state. The state is created as a result of a natural contract by the people themselves, who give it part of their rights, receiving in return a guarantee of security and law and order.

John Locke (1632 - 1704) - English thinker, a prominent representative of sensationalism and skepticism.

In his main job"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" Locke substantiates the origin of knowledge from sensations. Locke argues that there are no innate ideas in the mind; a person’s consciousness at the moment of birth is a “blank slate.” All ideas arise in the process of the influence of things that exist independently of us on our senses (“There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses”). As an example, Locke cites religious consciousness: if innate ideas (the idea of ​​God) existed, then there would be no unbelieving peoples and atheists.

Locke divides sensory experience into external and internal. Ideas of external experience arise during the perception of objects in the surrounding world by the senses: vision, hearing, touch, etc. - and reflect the objective qualities of objects. Internal experience gives a person an idea of ​​his mental state, of his soul and arises in the course of thought and reflection.

In the field of social philosophy, J. Locke developed the theory of the social contract, substantiated the idea of ​​law as the most important means of protecting a person from the arbitrariness of the state, and formulated a position on the need for separation of powers.

5. Formation of subjective idealistic philosophy (J. Berkeley, D. Hume).

George Berkeley(1685 - 1753) - English philosopher who opposed materialist philosophy. Berkeley argued that the world does not exist independently of man, but is a complex of sensations and perceptions. Only that which can be perceived exists, so “to be” means “to be in perception.”

Matter, according to Berkeley, is “empty and beautiful word”, a mainstay of atheists and a subject of debate among philosophers. The external world cannot be a source of sensations; the sensations themselves (ideas) are the only reality (*idea of ​​smell, color). Ideas are given from God as the highest and wise cause and are assimilated human soul. Berkeley names the brightness and universality of ideas as a criterion for the truth of knowledge.

David Hume(1711 – 1776) – English philosopher, historian, psychologist. Hume believed that a person deals not with the external world, but with the flow of his sensations and ideas. Question of existence outside world insoluble: “We know nothing about the world around us.” In the process of cognition, a person simply constructs the world from his impressions. The flow of impressions is heterogeneous: some of them seem to be the most vivid, stable - they serve as support for practical life. The task of knowledge is not to explain the world, but to be able to orient a person in practical life.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, a new, capitalist mode of production developed in the most advanced countries of Western Europe. The bourgeoisie turns into an independent class. Feudal owners begin to adapt to developing capitalist relations. An example of this is the fencing of pastures in England, as wool is needed for the textile industry.

At this time, a number of bourgeois revolutions took place: the Dutch (late 16th century), English (mid-17th century), French (1789-1794).

Natural science is developing. This is due to the needs of developing production.

At this time, the process of secularization of the spiritual life of society takes place.

Education ceases to be church and becomes secular.

By the end of the 16th century, philosophy was faced with the task of overcoming religious dogmatism, scholasticism, the scientific interpretation of nature, as well as justifying the needs of a new stage in the development of society - the stage of the origin, development and establishment of the capitalist mode of production. To solve these problems, philosophy had to first free itself from the tutelage of theology and re-establish itself as an independent branch of knowledge. It had to take into account the achievements of natural science and at the same time promote its development. Under these conditions, problems of the method and means of cognition, questions about the role of experience, feelings, and reason in the cognitive process came to the fore.

The main problems of modern philosophy:
1. connection of human consciousness with the sociocultural environment
2. participation of human consciousness in changes in the historical process
3. autonomization of the philosophy of history as a special field of knowledge

The philosophers of this period identified themselves with the enlightened classes of enlightened Europe. The lower social classes were the passive object of influence of philosophers.
Objectives of philosophy:
1. finding out and then explaining to people their natural ability to know, and, consequently, to conquer nature
2. development of methods for cognition of the general foundations of the cognitive process
3. elimination of ignorance and abscurantism (hostile attitude towards science)
4. Elimination of social injustice, poverty and tyranny

In the philosophy of the XVII-XVIII centuries. A metaphysical approach to the world developed and became dominant, when the objects of nature and society, as well as the concepts reflecting them, were considered once and for all given, unchangeable, subject to study separately from each other. A characteristic feature of this period in the development of philosophy was also mechanism. Mechanics was the most developed branch of natural science at that time. Therefore, it was assumed that everything that exists lives according to the laws of mechanics.

The main directions of philosophy of the New Age are

In the foreground are problems of epistemology.
1. Empiricism is a direction in the theory of knowledge that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge.
a) idealistic (Berkin, Hume) Empirical experience is a combination of sensations and
ideas, the size of the world = the size of experience.
b) materialistic (Bacon, Hobbes) - the source of sensory experience noun. external world.

sensationalism (the only source of reliable knowledge about the world is sensory perception) Sensualism is a doctrine in epistemology that recognizes sensations as the only source of knowledge. Sensualism is inextricably linked with empiricism - all knowledge is grounded in experience and through experience.

2. rationalism (the source of reliable knowledge about the world is the mind). Modern rationalism is characterized by dualism. Two principles of the world are recognized: matter and thought.

Sensualism uses induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general.

Rationalism relies on deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific.

F. Bacon is the founder of empiricism (cognition is based solely on experience). The main tasks of knowledge and experience are to help a person achieve practical results in his activities, promote new inventions, economic development, his philosophical credo: “Knowledge is power.” Bacon created induction - a method of cognition from particular empirical (experimental) data to general conclusions; he made the first attempt to classify sciences, highlighting historical sciences, poetry, and philosophy.

T. Hobbes is a student and successor of the philosophical tradition of F. Bacon. Rejected theological scholastic philosophy; The goal of philosophy was to achieve practical results in human activity that contributed to scientific and technological progress. In the dispute between empiricism (experiential knowledge) and rationalism (cognition through reason), he took the side of empiricism; considered the most important philosophical problem issues of society and state; developed the theory of the state in his work “Leviathan” (“Monster”), where he argued that the right of every person to everything and disregard for the interests of others leads to a “war of all against all,” therefore it is necessary to limit the freedom of people, saving them from themselves, and this can be done by the state; for this purpose it is necessary to conclude a social (joint) agreement.

J. Berkeley (subjective idealism) argued that there is no matter; to exist means to be perceived. The source of all our sensations, behind which there is nothing, is God (we all dream of God and at the same time of each other). The world consists of spirits and ideas (people and objects). Ideas cannot be the cause of anything; their cause is spirit. There is no idea of ​​spirit; we learn about the existence of other spirits from the ideas of their actions. Spirit is mind and will. The laws of nature are a connection of ideas. The World Spirit (God) produces ideas that do not depend on us (“Treatise on the Principles of Human Knowledge”).

R. Descartes, the founder of rationalism (the basis of both being and knowledge is reason), believed that the basis of all knowledge is doubt and intellectual intuition (“I think, therefore I exist”), the rest is comprehended by the method of deduction (determination of the unknown through previously known). Founded dualism (our mental life is completely autonomous), argued that a person combines two substances (material and spiritual), therefore, is dualistic (dual). Matter and consciousness always exist and are two various manifestations one being.

B. Spinoza is a rationalist, a representative of pantheism (God is synonymous with the Universe). The nature of God is understandable through his attributes - extension and thought. They combine and create an infinite variety of aspects (modes). The human mind is one of the modes of infinite Thought, the body is a mode of extension. Through meditation, a person can rise above the illusion of the senses and find peace in union with God. Substance Nature - God has an internal cause of itself, is independent and independent of anyone, infinite in space and time.

Under the influence of such exact sciences, like mechanics and mathematics, mechanism was established in philosophy. Within the framework of this type of worldview, nature was viewed as a huge mechanism, and man as an proactive and active worker.