Cognitive theory, its essence and application in practice. So, representatives of cognitive psychology have obtained a lot of important data that make the process of cognition as a whole more understandable, and many patterns of individual cognitive processes have been established. Oso

Introduction

Cognitive psychology is one of the most popular scientific directions in Western and Russian psychology. Cognitive psychology studies how people get information about the world, how this information is represented by a person, how it is stored in memory and converted into knowledge, and how this knowledge affects our attention and behavior.

The term "cognitive" (from the English cognition - knowledge, cognition) means cognitive. For example, in his fundamental work "Cognition and Reality" (1976), W. Neisser writes that "Cognitive, or otherwise cognitive, activity is an activity associated with the acquisition, organization and use of knowledge. Such activity is characteristic of all living beings, and especially for humans.For this reason, research cognitive activity is part of psychology.

Cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s. 20th century as a reaction to the denial of the role of internal organization mental processes.

Initially, the main task of cognitive psychology was to study the transformation of sensory information from the moment the stimulus hits the receptor surfaces until the response is received (D. Broadbent, S. Sternberg).

At the same time, the researchers proceeded from the analogy between the processes of information processing in humans and in a computing device. Numerous structural components (blocks) of cognitive and executive processes were identified, including short-term memory and long-term memory (J. Sperling, R. Atkinson).

This line of research, faced with serious difficulties due to the increase in the number of structural models of particular mental processes, led to an understanding of cognitive psychology as a direction whose task is to prove the decisive role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject (W. Neisser).

With such a broader approach, cognitive psychology includes all areas that criticize behaviorism and psychoanalysis from intellectualistic or mentalistic positions (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, J. Fodor).

The central issue is the organization of knowledge in the subject's memory, including the correlation of verbal and figurative components in the processes of memorization and thinking (G. Bauer, A. Paivio, R. Shepard).

Cognitive theories of emotions (S. Schechter), individual differences (M. Eysenck) and personality (J. Kelly, M. Mahoney) are also being intensively developed.

Thus, cognitive psychology covers almost all cognitive processes - from sensations to perception, pattern recognition, memory, concept formation, thinking, and imagination.

So, representatives of cognitive psychology have obtained a lot of important data that make the process of cognition as a whole more understandable, and many patterns of individual cognitive processes have been established.

Knowledge about the world is not a simple collection of information about the world. Man's ideas about the world program, project his future behavior. And what a person does and how he does it depends not only on his aspirations and needs, but also on relatively volatile ideas about reality.

Cognitive theory is any theory of personality that emphasizes cognitive processes (thinking, awareness, judgment) in understanding human behavior. All theories of personality are based on certain philosophical provisions about the nature of man. That is, the view of the personologist is the urgency human nature It has big influence to his model of personality.

All of the above justifies the relevance of this topic.

The purpose of the work is to consider the basics of the theory and its application in practice.

The work consists of an introduction, two parts, a conclusion and a list of references. Scope of work ____ pages.

1. Fundamentals of cognitive theory

The founder of this approach is the American psychologist J. Kelly. In his opinion, the only thing a person wants to know in life is what happened to him and what will happen to him in the future.

Kelly's theory represents a cognitive approach to personality. Kelly suggested that the best way human behavior can be understood by considering him a researcher. Like researchers, people need to predict and control events in their environment with some accuracy.

The main source of personality development, according to Kelly, is the environment, the social environment. The cognitive theory of personality emphasizes the influence of intellectual processes on human behavior. In this theory, any person is compared with a scientist who tests hypotheses about the nature of things and makes a forecast of future events. Any event is open to multiple interpretations.

Kelly's cognitive theory is based on the way in which individuals perceive and interpret the phenomena (or people) in their environment. Naming your approach theory of personality constructs, Kelly focuses on the psychological processes that enable people to organize and understand the events that take place in their lives.

The main concept in this direction is "construct" (from the English "construct" - to design). This concept includes features of all known cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking and speech). Thanks to constructs, a person not only cognizes the world, but also establishes interpersonal relationships. The constructs that underlie these relationships are called personality constructs. A construct is a kind of classifier - a template for our perception of other people and ourselves.

Kelly discovered and described the main mechanisms of the functioning of personality constructs. From Kelly's point of view, each of us builds and tests hypotheses, solves problems (for example, whether a given person is athletic or unathletic, musical or non-musical, intelligent or non-intelligent, and so on), using appropriate constructs. Some constructs are suitable for describing only a narrow range of events, while others have a wide range of applicability.

For example, the construct "smart - stupid" is hardly suitable for describing the weather, but the construct "good-bad" is suitable for virtually all occasions.

People differ not only in the number of constructs, but also in their location. Those constructs that are actualized in consciousness faster are called superordinate, and those that are slower - subordinate. For example, if, upon meeting a person, you immediately evaluate him in terms of whether he is smart or stupid, and only then - good or evil, then your "smart-stupid" construct is superordinate, and the "kind- evil" - subordinate.

Friendship, love, and generally normal relationships between people are possible only when people have similar constructs. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine a situation for two people to successfully communicate, one of whom is dominated by the construct "decent - dishonorable", while the other does not have such a construct at all.

The constructive system is not a static formation, but is in constant change under the influence of experience, that is, the personality is formed and develops throughout life. In personality dominates predominantly "conscious". The unconscious can only refer to distant (suborinant) constructs, which a person rarely uses when interpreting perceived events.

Kelly believed that the individual has limited free will. The constructive system that has developed in a person during his life contains certain limitations. However, he did not believe that human life is completely determined. In any situation, a person is able to construct alternative predictions. External world- not evil and not good, but the way we construct it in our head. Ultimately, according to cognitivists, the fate of a person is in his hands. Inner world man is subjective and is his own creation. Each person perceives and interprets external reality through their own inner world.

Each person has his own system of personal constructs, which is divided into two levels (blocks):

the block of "nuclear" constructs is approximately fifty basic constructs that are at the top of the constructive system, that is, in the constant focus of operational consciousness. A person uses these constructs most often when interacting with other people;

the block of peripheral constructs is all other constructs. The number of these constructs is purely individual and can vary from hundreds to several thousand.

The holistic properties of the personality act as a result of the joint functioning of both blocks, all constructs. There are two types of a holistic personality: a cognitively complex personality (a person who has a large number of constructs) and a cognitively simple personality (a personality with a small set of constructs).

A cognitively complex personality, in comparison with a cognitively simple one, has the following characteristics:

has better mental health;

deal with stress better;

has a higher level of self-esteem;

more adaptable to new situations.

As a doctrine, constructive alternativeism argues "that our entire modern interpretation of the world is in need of revision or replacement." All theories of personality are based on certain philosophical provisions about the nature of man. That is, the view of the personologist on the essence of human nature has a great influence on the model of personality developed by him. Unlike many personality theorists, George Kelly explicitly recognized that all conceptions of human nature, including his own, are based on fundamentals. He built his theory of personality on the basis of a holistic philosophical position - constructive alternativeism.

American self-taught, with one of the highest IQs in the world, from 195 to 210. Some media declared Christopher "The Most smart person America". It is noteworthy that before becoming the famous "smart guy", Langan worked as a bouncer in a bar.

Christopher Michael Langan was born in 1952 in San Francisco, California (San Francisco, California). Most of his childhood years were spent in Montana. Christopher's mother was from a fairly wealthy and successful family, however, she did not maintain contacts with relatives; his father disappeared from life, or died before the birth of his son.

At six months, Christopher began to speak, even before the age of 4 he taught himself to read, and in general showed all the signs of a child prodigy at a young age. However, Christopher's childhood was very dysfunctional - his natural gift was not only not encouraged, but ignored in every possible way. So, from the age of 5 to 14, the boy was constantly beaten by his stepfather, who became the reason early care Christopher from home. By that time, the young Langan had begun to train with weight lifting, gained muscle and was able to stop domestic violence. As he left, he promised never to return to that house again.

According to Christopher himself, in his last school years he was mainly self-taught, independently comprehending mathematics, physics, philosophy, Latin and Greek. Having received the highest score, Langan went to Reed College (Reed College) of the University of Montana (Montana State University), but soon the question of money arose for him very sharply. As a result, the young man decided that the professors were unlikely to be able to teach him better than himself, and therefore the official education was over.

Langan's work history looks very convincing - he worked as a cowboy, a firefighter in the forest service, a laborer, and worked as a bouncer in a bar on Long Island for more than 20 years.

Later, when the genius of Langan became already known, he said that he then led a "double" life - he worked as a bouncer, did his job, was kind to those who he should and was cool with those who deserved it, and in the evenings, returning home, he sat down at his work - the theory of the Cognitive-Theoretical Model of the Universe.

Christopher Langan drew public attention to his person in 1999, when Esquire magazine published its list of people with the most high level intellect. So, Langan's IQ level turned out to be so high that he was named "America's smartest man." Interest in Christopher's personality was also fueled by the fact that the genius worked as a bouncer for more than two decades, and also had a remarkable physical force- Langan squeezed 220 kg from his chest. Articles about him immediately appeared in "Popular Science", "The Times", "Newsday", "Muscle & Fitness" and many other publications, Christopher conducted interviews on BBC radio and appeared on TV.

It is known that in 2004, Christopher, along with his wife Gina (Gina, née LoSasso), who works as a neuropsychologist, moved to northern Missouri (Missouri), where they began to live on a ranch and breed horses.

In January 2008, Langan was a contestant on NBC's "1 vs. 100" where he won $250,000.

It is known that back in 1999, Christopher, together with Gina, founded non-profit organization"Mega Foundation", whose mission is "the creation and implementation of programs that help in the development of extremely gifted people and their ideas." Langan did not abandon his work - the Cognitive-Theoretical Model of the Universe; in 2001, he told Popular Science that he was working on a book, Design for a Universe.

Christopher is a member of several scientific and pseudo-scientific organizations, but does not consider himself a member of any religious communities - "he cannot allow his logical approach to theology to be damaged by religious dogmas."

The universe is mysterious, and the more science learns about it, the more amazing it appears. The first reaction to theories such as those presented here may be laughter. But what could be stranger than what we already know?

1. Everything around - "Matrix"

Many have watched the film, where the hero of Keanu Reeves is surprised to learn that the whole the world- "The Matrix", that is, something like a ghetto created for people by a computer super-mind. Of course, this is fiction, but there were scientists who were ready to take this idea seriously.

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

British philosopher Nick Bostrom suggested that our whole life is just an extremely complex game, reminiscent of The Sims: the development of the video game industry could lead to the ability to construct their own models of the world around us, and everyone could live forever in a separate virtual reality. If everything goes to this, there is no guarantee that our world is not code written by an unknown programmer, whose capabilities are significantly higher than human ones.

Silas Bean, a physicist at the University of Bonn in Germany, looked at it the other way: if everything around is a computer image, then there must be some line beyond which you can distinguish the “pixels” that make up everything. Bean considers the Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit to be such a boundary: without going into scientific subtleties, we can only say that the German physicist sees in it one of the proofs that we live in an artificially created program, and makes more and more attempts to discover a computer on which it installed. 2. Each of us has a "double"

Surely you know such a popular adventure story - there is a nightmarish world where everyone has an "evil" alter ego, and every good hero must sooner or later fight with him and gain the upper hand.

This theory is based on the fact that the world around us is an infinite number of combinations of one set of particles, something like a room with children and a huge Lego constructor: with some degree of probability, they can add the same thing from blocks, only in different ways. It is the same with us - perhaps somewhere our exact copy was born.

True, the probability of meeting is negligible - scientists say that the distance from our "double" to us can be from 10 to 1028 m.
3. Worlds may collide

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

There may be many others outside of our world, and nothing excludes the possibility of their collision with our reality.

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

California physicist Anthony Aguirre describes it as a giant mirror falling from the sky, in which we will see our own frightened faces if we have time to understand what is happening, and Alex Vilenkin and his colleagues from Tufts University, USA, are sure that they have found traces of such a collision.

Relic radiation is a weak electromagnetic background that permeates the entire outer space: all calculations show that it should be uniform, but there are places where the signal level is higher or lower than usual - Vilenkin believes that this is precisely the residual phenomena of the collision of two worlds.
4. The universe is a huge computer

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

It is one thing to assume that everything around is a video game, and quite another to argue that the Universe is a huge super-computer: such a theory exists, and according to it, galaxies, stars and black holes are the components of a huge computer.

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

The Oxford professor of quantum informatics Vlatko Vedral became an apologist for the theory: he considers the main bricks from which everything is built not to be particles of matter, but bits - the same units of information that ordinary computers work with. Each bit can contain one of two values: "1" or "0"; "yes" or "no" - the professor is convinced that even subatomic particles are made up of trillions of such values, and the interaction of matter occurs when many bits transfer these values to each other.

The same point of view is shared by Seth Lloyd, a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology: he brought to life the world's first quantum computer, using atoms and electrons instead of microchips. Lloyd suggests that the universe is constantly adjusting the dynamics of its own development.
5. We live inside a black hole

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

Of course, you know something about black holes - for example, that they have such an attraction and density that even light cannot escape from there, but it hardly occurred to you that we are currently in one of them.

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

But it occurred to a scientist from Indiana University - Doctor of Theoretical Physics Nikodem Poplavsky: he argues that, hypothetically, our world could be swallowed up black hole, and as a result we found ourselves in a new Universe - after all, it is still not really known what happens to objects that fall into such a giant "funnel".

The physicist's calculations suggest that the passage of matter through a black hole can be analogous to the Big Bang and lead to the formation of another reality. The contraction of space on the one hand can lead to expansion on the other, which means that every black hole is a potential “door” leading to something that has not yet been explored.
6. Humanity is affected by the effect of "bullet time"

Unusual theories of the structure of the universe

Surely, many people remember the scenes in the cinema when a flying bullet or a falling glass suddenly freezes, and the camera shows us this object from all sides. Something similar may be happening to us.

The Big Bang happened about 14 billion years ago, but the rate of expansion of the Universe, contrary to physical laws, is still increasing, although the force of attraction, it would seem, should slow down this process. Why is this happening? Most physicists claim "anti-gravity", which actually pushes the galaxies apart, but employees of two Spanish universities have developed an alternative theory: not the Universe is accelerating, but time is gradually slowing down.

This theory could explain why, for us, galaxies are moving faster and faster - the light has been going on for so long that we do not see their current state, but the distant past. If the Spanish scientists are right, there may be a moment in the future when, for a hypothetical "outside observer", our time will practically stop.
folk wisdom)

American self-taught, with one of the highest IQs in the world, from 195 to 210. Some media have declared Christopher "America's Smartest Man". It is noteworthy that before becoming the famous "wise guy", Langan worked as a bouncer in a bar.

Christopher Michael Langan was born in 1952 in San Francisco, California (San Francisco, California). Most of his childhood years were spent in Montana. Christopher's mother was from a fairly wealthy and successful family, but she did not maintain contact with relatives; his father disappeared from life, or died before the birth of his son.

At six months, Christopher began to speak, even before the age of 4 he taught himself to read, and in general showed all the signs of a child prodigy at a young age. However, Christopher's childhood was very dysfunctional - his natural gift was not only not encouraged, but ignored in every possible way. So, from the age of 5 to 14, the boy was constantly beaten by his stepfather, who became the reason for Christopher's early departure from home. By that time, the young Langan had begun to train with weight lifting, gained muscle and was able to stop domestic violence. As he left, he promised never to return to that house again.

lege) of the University of Montana (Montana State University), but soon the question of money arose very acutely for him. As a result, the young man decided that the professors were unlikely to be able to teach him better than himself, and therefore the official education was over.

Langan's work history looks very convincing - he worked as a cowboy, a firefighter in the forest service, a laborer, and worked as a bouncer in a bar on Long Island for more than 20 years.

Christopher Langan drew public attention to his person in 1999, when Esquire magazine published its list of people with the highest level of intelligence. So, Langan's IQ level turned out to be so high that he was named "America's smartest man." Interest in Christopher's personality was also fueled by the fact that the genius had worked as a bouncer for more than two decades, and also had

l remarkable physical strength - Langan squeezed 220 kg from his chest. Articles about him immediately appeared in "Popular Science", "The Times", "Newsday", "Muscle & Fitness" and many other publications, Christopher conducted interviews on BBC radio and appeared on TV.

In January 2008, Langan was a contestant on NBC's "1 vs. 100" where he won $250,000.

It is known that back in 1999, Christopher, together with Gina, founded the non-profit organization "Mega Foundation", whose task is "to create and implement programs that help in the development of extremely gifted people and their ideas." Langan did not abandon his work - the Cognitive-Theoretical Model of the Universe; in 2001, he told Popular Science that he was working on a book, Design for a Universe.

Nikolai Levashov

Theory of the Universe and objective reality

Man in the last few thousand years has constantly tried to comprehend the surrounding Cosmos. Various models of the Universe and ideas about the place of man in it were created. Gradually, these ideas were formed into the so-called scientific theory of the Universe. This theory was finally formed in the middle of the twentieth century. The basis of the current theory of the Big Bang was Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity. All other theories of reality, in principle, are only special cases of this theory, and therefore, not only the correctness of human ideas about the Universe, but also the future of civilization itself depends on how the theory of the Universe reflects the true state of things.

On the basis of man-made ideas about the surrounding nature, technologies, devices and machines are created. And it also depends on how they are created, whether the earthly civilization will exist or not. If these ideas are not correct or accurate, this can turn into a catastrophe and the death of not only civilization, but also life itself on a beautiful planet, which we, human beings, call the Earth. And thus, from purely theoretical concepts, ideas about the nature of the Universe pass into the category of concepts on which the future of civilization and the future of life on our planet depends. Therefore, what these ideas will be should excite not only philosophers and scientists of natural sciences, but also every living person.

Thus, ideas about the nature of the Universe, if they are correct, can become the key to the unprecedented progress of civilization and, if they are not correct, lead to the death of both civilization and life on Earth. Correct representations about the nature of the Universe will be constructive, and the erroneous ones will be destructive. In other words, ideas about the nature of the universe can become a weapon of mass destruction, in comparison with which a nuclear bomb is a child's toy. And this is not a metaphor, but the very truth. And this truth does not depend on whether someone accepts it or not, but, like any true position, does not depend on the subjectivity of the perceiver, just as, for example, solar activity does not depend on whether it is correct or not, man understands its nature. For the Sun, it is absolutely not important what ideas a person has about the nature of solar activity. How close these ideas are to true phenomena matters only for the person himself. And it seems to me that most people who call themselves scientists have forgotten this simple truth and are carried away by the creation of theories that, to a greater extent, serve their personal ambitions, and do not serve to know the truth that anyone who has dedicated himself to science.

All of the above is not fiction or verbiage, but, unfortunately, a fact. And this fact is not hidden in abstruse formulas and definitions that are not clear to the majority, but only to a narrow circle of "specialists". This fact is accessible to the understanding of every living person, regardless of whether this person has an education or not, knows how to read or not. Moreover, it is not only accessible to understanding, but, to a greater or lesser extent, already has a direct impact on every living person. False, erroneous ideas about the nature of the Universe have become the reason ecological disaster, to which the terrestrial civilization is moving so confidently. There are so many confirmations of this that anyone who wants to see it cannot even have doubts about what is happening. Everything suggests that the technocratic path of development that modern civilization has taken leads to the self-destruction of earthly civilization.

Modern science has accumulated a huge number of observations of what is happening in the world around us, in the so-called middle world in which man lives. The middle world is located between the macrocosm and the microcosm, at the level of which the laws of Nature exist. In our middle world, man can only observe manifestations of the true laws of nature. What a person is able to perceive through his five senses is just the tip of the iceberg that rises above the water. And everything else is that thing in itself, unknowable, about which Emmanuel Kant wrote in his writings. And such an understanding will be inevitable, due to the fact that, using the five senses, it is impossible to create a correct picture of the universe. And for one simple reason - the human senses were formed as a result of adaptation to the conditions of existence in ecological niche, which a person occupies as one of the types of living nature. These human senses allow him to perfectly get used to this ecological niche, but nothing more. The sense organs are meant for the middle world, and not for anything else.

Man has created many different devices, which, it seems, allowed him to penetrate into the microcosm and macrocosm. It would seem that the problem is solved: through the created devices, a person was able to penetrate into the micro- and macrocosm. But, there are several small "buts". And the main one of them is that a person, with the help of these devices, only expanded the possibilities of his sense organs into these worlds, but did nothing with the sense organs themselves. In other words, the limitedness of the sense organs was already transferred to the level of the micro- and macroworld. Just as it is impossible to see the beauty of a flower with the ears, so it is impossible, through the five senses, to penetrate into the micro- and macrocosm. What a person has received with the help of such devices does not allow one to penetrate into the “thing in itself”, but, for all that, allows one to see the fallacy of ideas about the nature of the Universe created by a person, through the five senses. It is precisely because of the limited tools for human cognition that a distorted, false picture of the universe arose and began to form. Observing only partial manifestations of the laws of nature, man was forced to follow the wrong path of understanding the nature of the Universe.

At the beginning of creation contemporary view about nature, man was forced to introduce postulates - assumptions accepted without any explanation. In principle, each postulate is God, since the Lord God was also accepted by man without any proof. And if, on initial stage, the acceptance of the postulates was justified, then, at the final stage of creating a picture of the universe, it is simply not acceptable. With the correct development of human ideas about the nature of the Universe, the number of accepted postulates should gradually decrease until one, maximum two postulates remain, which do not require explanation, due to their obviousness. What, for example, is the postulate of the objective reality of matter, which is given to us in our sensations. Of course, through his senses, a person is not able to perceive all forms and types of matter. A number of radiations that have a very real effect on physically dense matter, a person, through his senses, is not able to perceive, however, this does not mean that these forms of matter are not real.

For example, most people are not able to perceive through their senses 99% of the spectrum of electromagnetic oscillations, which are quite well known, thanks to the created devices. And, what can we say about the fact that existing devices are not able to catch ?! One way or another, a person seeks to know the world around him, and this knowledge, unfortunately, cannot happen instantly. Cognition proceeds through trial and error, when erroneous ideas became the property of history, and they were replaced by new ideas, which, over time, can also add to the list of unsuccessful attempts. But every theory rejected by practice is, in its essence, positive, since it tells every seeker of truth where it is not worth going in search of it.

A sign of the right direction in the knowledge of truth is a very simple factor - as the grains of knowledge are collected, the number of postulates in theories should decrease. If this happens, everything is in order. But, if this does not happen and the number of postulates does not decrease, but increases, this is surest sign removal from understanding the true picture of the universe. And this is dangerous for the future of civilization, because it inevitably leads to its self-destruction. IN modern science about the nature of the Universe, there are many times more postulates than it was, for example, in the 19th century. And the number of postulates continues to grow like a snowball. Everyone is so accustomed to them that they do not pay attention to the presence of postulates in almost every so-called scientific statement. The simplest questions baffle famous scientists ...