Types of division of labor

As you know, there are three types of social division of labor:

• o general, or division of labor between large spheres of material production (industry, agriculture, transport, communications, etc.);
• o private, or division of labor within these large areas (mechanical engineering, instrument making and other industries; livestock farming, crop production and other industries Agriculture);
• o single, or division of labor within one enterprise in which finished products are created. The concept of “enterprise” in this case is interpreted in a broad sense - we mean specialized enterprises where elements of, for example, a complex machine (finished product) are manufactured.

Consequently, from the point of view of global analysis in the field of the world economy, we are faced with three types of MRI:

• o international general division of labor;
• o international private division of labor;
• o international unit division of labor.

Types of division of labor

From the point of view of the territorial aspect, it is customary to distinguish two types of division of labor:

• o interregional (in this case we are talking about regions of one country);
• o international as the highest form (stage) of development of the socio-territorial division of labor between countries, allowing for the concentration of labor of certain products in certain countries. Approximate diagram global social division of labor is presented below (in Fig. 2.3).

Impact of MRI on factors of production

MRI directly affects factors of production. Historically, it was associated with the human environment. In some countries and territories, tribes could successfully survive due to the presence of fertile lands, the proximity of rivers necessary to make long journeys, transport goods, the presence of forests or reeds from which large boats (ships) can be built, etc. In other cases, natural conditions did not allow human communities to develop dynamically, and they disappeared. Despite all the paradoxes, these tragic events from the distant past of mankind are still relevant today. The point is that only active activity, based on highly skilled labor, with goals clearly formulated by society, gives dynamism and mobility to factors of production as sources of development. The mere presence, for example, of natural resources on the territory of a country cannot ensure the prosperity of society. For example, modern Sudan (like many other countries) is one of the richest countries in terms of the abundance and diversity of natural resources. But today the population of this country lives hardly better than 50 years ago, when it gained independence from the British crown.

Rice. 2.3.

However, MRT is not limited solely to natural, climatic and soil conditions, otherwise it is quite possible to assume that “African countries specialize, among other things, in the production of tropical fruits, and the countries of Northern Europe specialize in catching northern varieties of fish, which they themselves consume.” Natural factors were of exceptional importance in the division at the lower stages of human development into pastoral and agricultural tribes or tribes specializing in fishing or forest animals, etc. These factors also play an important role in the development of modern national economies, but the decisive role belongs to other factors associated with intellectual labor, which gave rise to modern high-tech production, sharply increased labor productivity and production efficiency, primarily in the developed segment of the world economy (the “Great Triad” , NIS, partly in China, India and Brazil).

Thus, the most important factor progress is the MRI process, which is based on increasing economic efficiency production various goods and services in different countries. This simultaneously presupposes its subsequent successful cross-country cooperation in its developed forms. National production cooperation of this kind allows the country to successfully promote diverse forms (and types) of international specialization and use them for the purposes of national development.

The influence of the international division of labor on the world economy

The inclusion of the national economies of countries in the world economic system on a profitable basis, more than ever before, depends today on the will and wisdom of national governments, since the factor of state influence in the economic process in all countries is extremely significant. Integration or disintegration, strict protectionism or regulated regime, trade wars or free trade - all this is concretely reflected in the economic policies of states pursued by their governments. Therefore, the task facing these countries is to bring their national economies into line with the requirements of the world economy and eliminate obstacles to development foreign economic relations, facilitate the entry of national economic entities into foreign markets and the influx of productive capital into their countries.

At the same time, of course, we cannot talk about blind subordination of national-state interests to anyone; it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the world market and ensure a reasonable balance of interests, which largely depends on statesmen, their art and professionalism, and dedication to the interests of their countries . The decline of productive forces in the Russian economy in the 1990s. - to a large extent, the fault of the reformers themselves, who blindly and dogmatically tried to transfer the experience of other countries into conditions that were inadequate to it and, moreover, without being able or knowing how to do this. Today we can say that a full-fledged rejection of autarky by almost all CIS participants is happening inconsistently, even spasmodically, and rather only at the political level.

Country participation in MRI, as more than 100 years of experience shows, can be different types.

First type. These are mature forms of MRI, when industrialized countries exchange goods and services based on their needs; It's not just the raw materials that every National economy, but above all finished products.

Second type. This is a kind of former colonial division of labor, when developed countries supply mainly finished products to less developed countries; and in the opposite direction raw materials and semi-finished products are sent. Of course, poor countries rich in raw materials should participate in MRI through the resources they have. But the problem is that if they do not simultaneously create their industrial potential using revenues from raw materials, this system is consolidated through a powerful production and raw material infrastructure, bilateral and multilateral agreements; through the formation of the habit among the local elite to receive easy incomes, without bothering themselves with complex work on the creation and maintenance of a modern industrial base, etc.

Any organization of labor in an enterprise must begin with its own division, representing the isolation of the types of activities of each employee and much more. The division of activities is a long-established process that includes the separation, consolidation and modification of individual types of activity (labor). The basis of any division are the main types of labor:

• physical;
• mental.

Physical activity

In this case, a person acts as a tool of labor, since he performs energy functions in the system. Types of manual labor: dynamic and static. During dynamic work, a person must move his body in space. Static - the impact of load on the arms, muscles, joints.

Manual activity is characterized by a higher muscle load, which falls on musculoskeletal system and body systems. At the same time, the muscular system develops, stimulating metabolic processes.

Brainwork

This is the reception and processing of information. Such work requires intense attention, activation of thought processes, and memory. Work is associated with a fairly high emotional load. But prolonged mental stress negatively affects a person’s mental activity. There is a deterioration in attention, memory, and environmental perception functions.

Elements of organization

The organization of labor in an enterprise is the establishment and change of the order according to which workers interact with the means of production. There should also be interaction between employees to achieve business goals. Labor is organized if it:

• cooperative;
• divided;
• the workplace is organized;
• workplace maintenance is organized;
• labor methods and techniques have been established;
• norms and measures of labor costs have been established;
• favorable conditions have been created;
• personnel are selected, trained and can improve their skills;
• labor is paid and financially incentivized;
• work activities are planned, recorded and analyzed;
• there is labor discipline.

Interrelated types of work

In a general sense, there are three interrelated types of division of labor activity:

1. General (dividing the activities of workers between large industries, for example, transport, industry, construction).
2. Private (within a particular industry).
3. Single (labor is divided among workers of a separate enterprise).

Depending on the type and type of work, there are such types of division of labor as functional, qualification, professional and technological. It is also divided on a territorial basis (large and small units) and within units.

Functional form of division of labor

With this form, it is assumed that personnel are divided into homogeneous groups that differ from each other in their roles in the production process or activities performed. The most numerous functional group of personnel are workers: auxiliary and primary. If the first are engaged in and perform the basic functions of production, then the second group ensures the implementation of these functions (repair, adjustment, control).

Other categories are distinguished based on the functions performed by employees. These include specialists, managers, employees, technical performers, junior service personnel, students, etc.

If there is a functional division of labor at the enterprise, we can say that all categories of personnel are effectively used.

With this type of division of activities, it is assumed that efficiency will increase due to the specialization of workers, engineering and technical workers and those who work, taking as a basis a clear separation of the functions of marketing, management, design, personnel management, production of goods, etc.

Technological distribution of labor

The technological distribution of labor provides for the arrangement of workers by phases and stages, types of work, etc., as well as by production operations. This depends on the production technology and the specifics of the work. This distribution of labor affects the level of content of labor. And if narrow specialization is prone to monotony, then broad specialization has a high probability that the work will be performed poorly. Therefore, the organizer faces a responsible task: to find the optimal level of division of labor activity according to technological criteria. This form has three varieties: subject, stage-by-stage and operational division of labor.

Qualification and professional division of labor

Such types of division as professional and qualification are similar, since they depend on the employee himself.

The above division of labor implies division into professions and specialties. According to this form of division, the required number is established different categories workers.

Qualification division - distribution of work depending on complexity and in accordance with the knowledge and experience of workers. Distribute responsibilities between employees different groups with the same qualifications. Qualification categories establish appropriate skill levels for workers. The higher the rank, the correspondingly higher the level of qualification.

The listed types and forms of labor, as well as forms of cooperation activities corresponding to them, should characterize the features of interaction between workers in production. These types of division of labor create wide opportunities for the organization to use labor.

Forms of organization of labor activity

The methods for establishing planned targets, as well as the way work already completed is taken into account, allow us to distinguish the following types of work organization:

• Individual form. It is used to ensure that each employee has their own task. Accordingly, records of work performed are kept individually, which means that everyone has a separately generated income.
• Collective form. In this case, the entire team receives the task. Manufactured products are accounted for final results work. The entire team receives a certain income.

In addition to the main two forms, there are the following types labor or form of organization:

• division according to the formation of funds for carrying out activities (small enterprise, cooperative, rent, contract, individual labor activity);
• by the method of interaction with higher authorities (contract, lease agreement, contract and direct subordination);
• according to the management of collectives (full, partial and self-government);
• by the size of the team and its place in the management hierarchy (group, workshop, district, unit, brigade, etc.);
• according to the division and cooperation of labor in complex units (full division of labor, partial interchangeability and complete interchangeability);
• division according to the method of planning and cost accounting (self-supporting, with elements of self-supporting and without self-supporting);
• in accordance with the method of payment and material incentives (individual remuneration, collective remuneration - based on a tariff system, possibly using coefficients; tariff-free remuneration system).

The above forms can be combined.

Working conditions

Working conditions are understood as a combination of factors in the working environment and the labor process where human activity is carried out. Types of working conditions are divided into four classes, based on hygienic criteria:

1. Optimal conditions. Under such conditions, the employee’s health is preserved and a high level of performance is maintained.
2. Acceptable conditions. In this case, the factors of the production environment do not exceed the acceptable levels of hygiene standards for workers. If any changes occur, then during regulated rest the employee’s body recovers.
3. Harmful conditions. The combined factors of the labor process have a harmful or severe impact on health, as well as on a person’s performance during the work process.
4. Hazardous conditions. Production factors are at such a level that, when affecting workers, they pose a threat to life or injury or injury. This traditionally includes industrial organizations involved, for example, in nuclear energy. Of course, working in such conditions is prohibited. But in the event of an accident, emergency measures should be taken in such places.

Work safety

All types of work need to ensure safety, that is, the worker should not be exposed to hazardous production factors. The main sources of law on operational safety are the following documents:

1. International Act on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1996).
2. ILO Convention.
3. Constitution Russian Federation(Article 7 - occupational safety and health). It also sets a minimum wage. Article 37 states the right to work in conditions of safety and hygiene. In addition, forced labor is prohibited.
4. The Labor Code in Article 219 defines the rights of each employee to his own workplace, to receive reliable information about working conditions, social insurance. A person may also refuse to work if there is a danger to health or life. Each employee must be provided with personal and collective protective equipment, etc.

Other types of work

The result of work is also the criterion by which labor is divided into two types:

1. Past and alive. In the first case, this is embodiment in objects and means of labor. In the second case, it is the labor of the worker, which is expended at a given moment in time.
2. Unproductive and productive. The second leads to natural and material benefits, and the first leads to social and spiritual benefits, but they have no less utility and value for society.

It is also worth mentioning the reproductive and creative work. Reproductive leads in advance known results, since it is distinguished by the standardization of all reproducible functions. Not every person can engage in creative activities. Everything is determined by the level of education, qualifications, and ability to innovate.

Each person begins to learn all types of work at school. Of course, most of the time is spent on mental activity. But things like Physical Culture or labor, introduce physical activity.

The concept and types of labor are multifaceted. They can be viewed from different angles, each time discovering new sides. However, the basic, generally accepted divisions of work activity should be known in order to understand the difference between them. This can be useful, for example, when applying for a job.

Article on division of labor rewritten 23.12.2017 as for, which constitutes the economic part of science. The term division of labor is multi-valued, since it can mean both the division of one person’s daily time into separate periods of production of different products, and it can be used in relation to the whole production, in which production has been divided into separate operations, each of which is performed by a separate person.

The phenomenon of division of labor

1.2. The phenomenon of division of labor for people it's all the same division of activities, which is inherent in most species of living beings. If we decide to find out - why division of labor appeared in animals? then we will find the answer in the general theory of systems, in which one “ law of necessary diversity " states that interaction is possible only if the elements have variety, and the other " law of hierarchical compensation ” states that interaction within the boundaries of a system is more effective if the elements have specialization.

1.3. In animal systems, diversity can be achieved by the emergence of different body shapes in members of the same species (look at communities of ants or bees), but in evolution, behavioral diversity was more often used to increase the efficiency of interaction. Therefore, when animals form a certain system (herd, flock, mating pair), their interaction is determined by the difference in behavior. Therefore, we can safely answer the question about emergence of division of labor- people inherited this division of activity from their animal ancestors. The division of activity itself is only an expression of the diversity that each element of the system must have for the sake of effective interaction with other elements.

1.4. Increasing efficiency from participation in the division of labor system, which means increasing the range and volume of consumption, is the answer to the question: why do people live together in communities? . Of course, people were not pioneers, and division of labor between humans have a legacy of the animal past, since (more precisely, activities) are common among animals. There are extreme examples in Nature, for example, bees or ants, in which the division of labor went through a change in body shape into several classes among representatives of the same species. People only gender differences, and although statistically males are larger than females, the peculiarity of people is that they do not take into account the correspondence of the body shape to the nature of the work. The point is in the special evolutionary path of people, when their body evolved into a manipulator of tools, and since an object of any shape could become such a tool, then into a manipulator universal. Therefore, each person, due to the fact that his body is a universal manipulator, has the opportunity to integrate into any link in the technological chain in which the vast majority of people's products are produced.

2.2. The frequently used division of labor is polysemantic. Sometimes it means a system of division of labor as a category, sometimes it means an act when something previously unified is divided into different types labor, and sometimes - the historical process of deepening the division of labor.

2.3. Therefore, this term itself (without specifications) is used to a minimum, only where its specific meaning is clear from the context.

Readers who theme of division of labor interested in professional level- I recommend the video:

In addition, I suggest vocabulary, so in the left column are articles from, and on the right is orthodox terminology.

THE PROBLEM OF THE DIVISION OF LABOR

3.1. According to the format of the article as a criticism of orthodox ideas about the division of labor at the end I posted a typical article about types of division of labor, but first I will state a few comments about the difference in ideas about the concept of division of labor in and neoconomics.

3.2. Firstly, in neoconomics, the real economy can be represented as a combination of many, to which the concept can only be applied level of division of labor, whereas orthodox economic theory views everything as homogeneous systems With equal to degree of division of labor. After Adam Smith - no one in economic theory and did not look at the economy as a system of division of labor.

3.3. Secondly, due to historicity in neoconomics, the first economy is considered to be an economy, which serves as an ideal example of a reproduction circuit. Therefore, in neoconomics there is an understanding that the system of division of labor is limited by the number of inhabitants, because without people it is impossible to deepen the division of labor - there simply may not be enough of them for new operations. In orthodoxy, they proceed from the “Robinson model”, when new economic entities land on the island, as a prototype of the economy - i.e. “Robinsons”, who for unknown reasons (reasonableness?) are included in the division of labor, from which the conclusion is drawn about the possibility of endless growth of the division of labor system. In Rosa Luxemburg's dispute with Lenin about the limitations of market growth and, accordingly, the division of labor, Western economic theory took the side of Lenin, who believed that capitalism itself creates markets without restrictions. This position supported the thesis about the eternity of capitalism, but as a result in economics (similarly in Marxism) they cannot understand the reason modern crisis, as the impossibility of further growth of the global division of labor.

Division of labor Wikipedia

3.5. The fact that modern economics believes concept of division of labor too trivial and not requiring any explanation - can be seen from the paucity of the article division of labor on Wikipedia where did I get the following from? definition of division of labor:

3.6. Division of labor (also - Labor union (???)) - a historically established process of people performing their specialized types of activities in general for all matters, accompanied by isolation, modification, consolidation of certain types of labor activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation various types labor activity.

3.7. It's not hard to understand what it is definition of division of labor is complex and unclear, so instead of an article Division of labor Wikipedia I posted the text of a good essay. However, despite all the development of the topic of division of labor, it remained a kind of third-party insertion, although I also drew attention to the great meaning of division of labor in economics.

Adam Smith on the division of labor

4.1. It so happened historically that all economic theories did not notice the “Elephant” that is. The founder of political economy set such a descriptive tendency in relation to when he wrote in his book:

4.2. “The greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor and the considerable amount of art, skill and intelligence with which it is directed and applied, appeared, apparently , a consequence of the division of labor"

4.3. This Smith's clause: - « apparently ", rather testified to the honesty of the great economist, who himself, apparently, did not consider himself an expert, therefore, reinforcing his statement - " The greatest progress... has resulted from the division of labor " - dedicated THREE chapters in the book, as evidenced by their titles:

• Chapter I "On the Division of Labor"
• Chapter II "On the Cause Causing the Division of Labor"
• Chapter III "The division of labor is limited by the size of the market"

5.3. The fact is that the subject of study of classical political economy was the national economy, therefore, when compared, the first thing that caught the economists’ eye was difference in natural resources from countries. When transferring the fact that countries have different natural advantages to Robinson's model of economics- the thought arose that emergence of division of labor among humans can be explained by resource limitations. Like, one subject has a certain set of natural resources, and another has another, then in order to produce something, they need to be exchanged. This idea was developed by David Ricardo, thanks to whom problems of division of labor shifted to the plane of natural advantages. Moreover, the raw material factor to explain reasons for the social division of labor seemed clearer even to Karl Marx, so Marxist political economy believed question of division of labor fully resolved in David Ricardo's Theory of Comparative Advantage.

5.4. Understanding the division of labor could not fall into the focus of classical political economy, since the object of research was initially social connections, which are formed under the influence of socio-economic phenomena, which especially prevailed in Marxist political economy, which became the pinnacle of the classics. Moreover, currently the entire ideology of international organizations, among which, is based on the ideas of Ricardo and Adam Smith about natural advantages. recommend that developing countries find certain advantages on their own, on the basis of which it is necessary to carry out specialization, which should certainly bring the countries to a high position in the global division of labor.

5.5. Actually, an indistinct political economic definition of division of labor adopted neoclassical economic theory, which at the end of the 19th century was created as anti Marxism, as the theory of class struggle has gained great popularity. However, the fact that division of labor associated not with the benefits of specialization, but with natural factors could not be accepted by neoclassics, for the reason that the subject of its study was not the economy, but the individual.

5.6. Therefore, with the goal of refuting the Marxist theory of class struggle, bourgeois political economy also accepted division of labor as a given that does not require explanation. By that time it was familiar to everyone without any explanation. Indeed, everything was understood as a continuation of the gender-age division of labor, and even more - the division of activity characteristic of many animal species.

Concept of division of labor

Ideas about the division of labor

6.2. The process of deepening the division of labor had little interest in Marxist political economy and (micro-macro), which do not go beyond the time frame of capitalist relations and were noticeably politicized, since they opposed in their basic postulates the finitude of capitalism. The entire political economy emerged from the concept of surplus value, which is appropriated by the capitalist, which gave rise to the theory of class struggle, and, which appeared as the antipode of Marxism, today has degenerated into the theory of the counter - what and how to put on the shelves in order to sell faster.

6.2. Ideas about the division of labor in modern economic theory come from a popular model called the “Robinson model”. Western economists imagine the economy as an island on which certain entities (Robinsons) land and begin to interact with each other, which implies a certain variety of products they produce. By the way, in neoconomics the “Robinson model” is also used as an example of the closedness of the reproductive circuit, but due to historicity, it is understood that in reality the first economy (circuit) was the economy of the TRIBE, with the number of members of the order of a hundred. But in bourgeois economic theory there is no connection to real units of humanity, and therefore systems of division in economics can be of any degree of fantasy. As a result of this approach, ideas appear that the division of labor increases the market, and vice versa - the division of labor system has no restrictions on the number of people on the planet (for example, Lenin’s arguments against Rosa Luxemburg - “capitalism itself creates markets”).

6.4. Depth of division of labor, taken as a factor, immediately made it possible to study and make forecasts of the results of interaction between the economies of different countries, which act as a set of contours. Therefore, it has become a new level of economic knowledge.

6.5. Actually theme of division of labor disclosed in thousands of articles, for example, in mine, however, as an economic science, it studies speculative theoretical or otherwise abstract concepts. Therefore, this article can be read only for general educational purposes, and entrance to neoconomics begins with understanding new terms - speculative, like labor division chain in the production of goods, which is applied to a new speculative object in economics, named .

As preparation, I recommend to readers the book Fundamentals of Economics by M.A. Storcheva. (edited by P.A. Vatnik. St. Petersburg: Economic School, 1999. 432 p.)

According to the format of the article, I had to post a typical definition of division of labor, which I usually take from Wikipedia (Wikipedia division of labor), but article division of labor Wikipedia much inferior to the abstract that I found on the Forms, essence and meaning of the division of labor page on the abstracts website bibliofond.ru.

Forms, essence and meaning of division of labor

• Introduction
• 1 Forms of labor organization
• 1.1 Division of labor: concept and general characteristics
• 1.2 Forms of division of labor
• 2 The meaning of division of labor
• Conclusion
• Bibliography

Introduction

In producing the necessary means of subsistence, people influence nature. Production, therefore, is the relationship of people to nature. However, influencing nature, they have a corresponding impact on each other, entering into a certain relationship. Those relations that are determined by the requirements of economic practice are usually called production, that is, economic relations. At the center of any production process is work. Self production can be characterized as a system of labor processes necessary for the production of a given type of material goods or services provided by individuals or organizations.

Even the most primitive work of primitive man always took place with the support and interaction with other people. Therefore, the social content of labor activity was already hidden in this. All this suggests that the labor process and labor itself is an economic category, i.e. there is always an element of economic and production relations in it. Man is a social being due to the fact that labor makes him organically united in relation to other people not only of the present, but also of the past (when the experience of his predecessors is taken into account) and the future, when the results of his labor will serve in the future. considers the production and reproduction of material and other goods necessary for the life of the human race. Disclosure of these issues requires the identification of general or specific laws governing industrial relations between people. Production relations include the relations of people in the process of production, exchange, distribution, consumption and accumulation of material goods. The entire set of these relations represents unified system economic relations, within the framework of which the normal process of life of any economic system is possible. All material needs of society can be divided into two classes: in the production process there is interaction not only with the means of production, but also with one’s colleagues, co-workers in joint work, and joint work has its own economic significance, since it allows for the exchange of not only activities, but also exchange of experience, skills, will to achieve the assigned tasks for workers.

The work of an individual worker, no matter how isolated it may seem, is a part of the total social labor. This is facilitated not only by the production technology itself, but also by constant not only human, but also industrial training of production participants, since the joint production and productive activities of people are carried out in the form cooperation and division of labor. This applies not only to the labor process itself, but also to the organization of interaction itself. various forms property and types of economic systems. Self division of labor consists in the specialization of an employee to carry out any work, operations, or the production of a separate product.

Forms of labor organization

1.1. Division of labor:concept and general characteristics

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - division of functions between people, based on gender, age, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on performing a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

Definition of division of labor

There are several definitions of division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

Division of labor- this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity. Division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the system of various types of labor activity itself is becoming more and more complex, as the labor process itself becomes more complex and deepens.

Division of labor(or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in an economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the action of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can receive much more benefits than if everyone provided themselves with everything they need.

Division of labor Wikipedia describes in the following words:

Division of labor- a historically established process of isolation, modification, consolidation of certain types of labor activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.

They also distinguish between the division of labor in the broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

Broadly speaking, the division of labor- these are types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations that are different in their characteristics and simultaneously interact with each other, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economic sciences, demography, etc. The territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the relationship between various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term “ distribution of labor».

Exists division of labor within society And division of labor within the enterprise. These two main types are interconnected and interdependent. Division of social production on its large types (such as agriculture, industry, etc.) K. Marx called general division of labor, the division of these types of production into types and subtypes (for example, industry into separate branches) - private division and, finally, within the enterprise - single division.

General, private and unit division of labor- inseparable from the professional specialization of workers. The term division of labor also used to denote the specialization of production within one country and between countries - international and territorial division of labor.

In the narrow sense, division of labor- This social division of labor as human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transitory social relationship. There is specialization of labor division of labor on a subject that directly expresses and contributes to the progress of the productive forces. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of human exploration of nature and grows with its development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it itself is influenced social division of labor. The latter dismembers human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as an individual. These partial functions are devoid of their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as demands placed on them from the outside division of labor system. This is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. By expression social division of labor is the selection as separate spheres of material production, science, art, etc., as well as the dismemberment of them themselves.

Division of labor historically inevitably grows into a class division.

Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of individual goods, professions– individual types of activities related to the production of any good. The variety of goods for which specialization took place created horizontal division of labor with the isolation of individual branches of production of related goods, in which further fragmentation continued into smaller, highly specialized manufacturing operations. Horizontal division of labor occurs with the emergence of a new type of product, but within it naturally appears associated with the division of movement from the extraction of raw materials to final production and consumption into allocated manufacturing operations.

Thus, important element labor organization is division of labor, i.e. separation of types of labor activities between employees, teams and other departments in the enterprise. This is the starting point of labor organization, which, based on production goals, consists of assigning to each employee and each department their responsibilities, functions, types of work, and technological operations. The solution to this issue should include, along with the requirement for the most rational use working time and qualifications of the employee such that his specialization is maintained so that the content of work is preserved, its monotony is not allowed, and the harmonization of physical and mental stress is ensured.

1.2 Forms of division of labor

The following are distinguished: forms of division of labor at enterprises:

• functional division of labor- depending on the nature of the functions performed by employees in production and their participation in the production process. On this basis, workers are divided into workers (main and auxiliary) and office workers. Employees are divided into managers (linear and functional), specialists (designers, technologists, suppliers) and technical performers. In turn, workers can form functional groups of main workers, service workers and auxiliary workers. Among the latter are groups of repair and transport workers, quality controllers, energy service workers, etc. Functional division of labor manifests itself in two directions: between the categories of workers included in the personnel of the enterprise, and between the main and auxiliary workers. The first means the identification of such categories of workers as workers, managers, specialists and employees among the personnel of enterprises. A characteristic trend in the development of this type of division of labor is an increase in the share of specialists in the production personnel. Another direction of the functional division of labor is the division of workers into main and auxiliary workers. The first of them are directly involved in changing the form and condition of the objects of labor being processed, for example, workers in foundries, mechanical and assembly shops of machine-building enterprises, engaged in performing technological operations for the manufacture of main products. The latter do not directly participate in the implementation of the technological process, but create the necessary conditions for uninterrupted and efficient work essential workers. Classification of operations according to division of labor requirements between managers, specialists and employees (three interconnected groups): 1) organizational and administrative functions - their content is determined intended purpose operations and role in the management process. Performed mainly by managers; 2) analytical and constructive functions are predominantly creative in nature, contain elements of novelty and are performed by specialists; 3) information technology functions are repetitive in nature and are associated with the use technical means. Performed by employees;
• technological division of labor- this is the division and isolation of the production process according to the subject or operational principle. Due to the development of scientific and technological progress and the deepening division of industries into sub-industries and micro-industries specializing in the manufacture of technologically homogeneous products, production certain items, goods or services; types of technological division of labor are: subject and operational division of labor; The forms of manifestation of the division of people in this case are: profession (oriented towards the final product) and specialty (limited to an intermediate product or service). Subject division of labor(detailed), i.e. specialization in the production of individual products involves assigning to the worker a complex of various operations aimed at producing a certain type of product. Operational division of labor- based on assigning a limited set of technological operations to specialized workplaces and is the basis for the formation of production lines. Technological division of labor classified by phases, types of work, products, units, parts, technological operations. It determines the placement of workers in accordance with production technology and significantly influences the level of content of work. At narrow specialization monotony appears in the work; with too broad specialization, the likelihood of poor quality work increases. The responsible task of the labor organizer is to find optimal level technological division of labor;
• - by specialty and profession. Reflects the production and technological side and functional content of labor. As a result professional division of labor There is a process of separation of professions, and within them - the selection of specialties. It is also in relationship with the social structure of society, since closely related to its social divisions. Based on this form of division of labor, the required number of workers is established different professions. Profession- the type of activity of a person who has certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training. Specialty - a type of profession, the specialization of an employee within the profession; (As defined Profession Wikipedia look at the link profession)
• qualification division of labor- within each professional group, associated with the unequal complexity of the work performed and, consequently, with different requirements requirements for the employee’s qualification level, i.e. division of labor of performers depending on the complexity, accuracy and responsibility of the work performed in accordance with professional knowledge and work experience. Expression qualification division of labor serves as a distribution of work and workers by category, and employees by position. Regulated by tariff and qualification reference books. The qualification structure of the organization’s personnel is formed from the qualification division of labor. Division of labor here it is carried out according to the level of qualifications of workers, based on the required qualifications of the work.

There are also three forms social division of labor:

• characterized by the isolation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product (agriculture, industry, etc.);
• private division of labor– this is the process of separating individual industries within large types of production, divided into types and subtypes (construction, metallurgy, machine tool building, animal husbandry);
• unit division of labor characterizes the separation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the separation of individual technological operations, i.e. separation of various types of work within an organization, enterprise, within certain structural divisions (shop, site, department, management, team), as well as distribution of work between individual employees.

2 . The essence and significance of the division of labor

For resolving issues of division of labor use the concepts " boundaries of the division of labor" And " level of division of labor". Limits of division of labor- lower and upper limits, below and above which division of labor is unacceptable. Level of division of labor- the accepted calculated or actually achieved value characterizing the state of the division of labor.

With the division and cooperation of labor, the question is resolved: who will do what, how and with whom they will interact. To organize highly productive work, it is also necessary to solve the following question: how, in what way the work should be done.

For example, we can consider a branch of industry in which the division of labor was very often noted, namely pin production. A worker who is not trained in this production (the division of labor has made the latter a special profession) and who does not know how to handle the machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of the latter was probably also given by this division of labor) can hardly, perhaps, with all his efforts make one pin a day and, in any case, will not make twenty pins. But with the organization that this production now has, it itself as a whole not only represents a special profession, but is also divided into a number of specialties, each of which in turn is a separate special occupation. One worker pulls the wire, another straightens it, a third cuts it, a fourth sharpens the end, a fifth grinds one end to fit the head; manufacturing the head itself requires two or three independent operations; fitting it is a special operation, polishing a pin is another; Even wrapping the finished pins in bags is an independent operation. The complex labor of making pins is thus divided into about eighteen independent operations, which in some manufactories are all performed by different workmen, while in others the same workman often performs two or three operations.

In every other craft and manufacture consequences of division of labor similar to those described in these industries, although in many of them the labor cannot be so divided and reduced to such simple operations. However division of labor in any craft, no matter how large it is introduced, causes a corresponding increase in labor productivity. Apparently separation from each other various professions and occupations were caused by this advantage. At the same time, such a distinction usually goes further in countries that have reached a higher stage of industrial development: what in the wild state of society constitutes the work of one person, in a more developed society is performed by several. In any developed society, the farmer is usually engaged only in farming, the owner of a manufacture is engaged only in his manufacture. The labor required to produce any finished object is also almost always distributed among a large number of people. How many different professions are employed in each branch of linen or cloth production, beginning with those who raise flax and sheep that supply wool, and ending with those who are engaged in bleaching and polishing linen or dyeing and finishing cloth.

True, agriculture by its very nature (as an exception, having seasonality from climatic conditions) does not allow such a diverse division of labor, nor such complete separation from each other various works how is this possible in manufactory.

It is impossible to completely separate the occupation of a cattle breeder from the occupation of a farmer, as is usually the case with the professions of a carpenter and a blacksmith.

The spinner and the weaver are almost always two different persons, while the worker who plows, harrows, sows and reaps is often one person. In view of the fact that these different kinds of labor must be performed at different seasons of the year, it is impossible for a separate worker to be constantly employed in each of them throughout the year. The impossibility of so completely distinguishing all the different types of labor practiced in agriculture is, perhaps, the reason that the increase in labor productivity in this area does not always correspond to its increase in industry.

This significant increase in the amount of work that can be done as a result division of labor the same number of workers depends on three various conditions: Firstly, from increasing agility each individual worker; Secondly, from saving time, which is usually lost in the transition from one type of labor to another; Thirdly, from invention large quantity cars, facilitating and reducing labor and allowing one person to do the work of several.

This is achieved by establishing rational labor methods and techniques. Of course, the way work gets done is largely determined by technology, but every technological operation can be performed in different ways: with more or less movements, more or less skillfully, with the expenditure of varying amounts of time and physiological energy. Establishing a method the most economical performing every action, method, operation, every job is the responsible task of the labor organizer. It involves the analysis and development of all parts of the labor process, including all calculations and construction, and coordination of movements, the choice of a comfortable working posture, the method of holding a tool and controlling machines and mechanisms, time for rest, downtime, etc.

It should be noted that division of labor, meaning the simultaneous coexistence of various types of labor activity, plays an important role in the development of the organization of production and labor:

• firstly, the division of labor is a necessary prerequisite for the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity;
• Secondly, division of labor
• Thirdly, division of labor

But division of labor As a process of specialization of workers, it cannot be considered only as a narrowing of the scope of human activity through the performance of increasingly limited functions and production operations.

Division of labor is multilateral complex process, which, changing its forms, reflects the action of the objective law of labor change: the socio-economic law of social production, expressing objective, significant, continuously intensifying and expanding connections between revolutionary changes in the technical basis of production, on the one hand, and the functions of workers and social combinations of the process labor - on the other. The accelerating mobility of labor functions is an immutable requirement of this law. In the context of the requirements, we are talking about the universality of the workforce, its flexibility, versatility, adaptability as a condition for its ability to change work. The main reasons causing the need for a change in labor are revolutions in the technical basis of production. Firstly, by changing equipment, technology and organization of production, they lead to the disappearance of some professions and the emergence of new ones associated with the use of higher-level technology. Secondly, by creating more progressive branches of production, revolutions in the technical basis sharply change the proportions in the balance of the labor force, which leads to a change in its professional and qualification structure. If in the first stages of the development of large industry, during the working life of one generation, changes in the professional structure were insufficient to discern a tendency to change labor, then at the present stage one generation has a need to change profession two or three or more times. The nature of large industry is constantly revolutionizing division of labor within society and continuously throws masses of capital and masses of workers from one industry to another. Therefore, the nature of large-scale industry determines the change of labor, the movement of functions, and the all-round mobility of the worker.

Revolutionizing the division of labor entails radical changes in its content, and the latter creates the preconditions for the emergence of new sectors of the economy and new professions. The change of labor can be carried out in time, in space, and also in time and space simultaneously. When considering the change in work over time, it is necessary to distinguish between a complete switch from one type of work to another, carried out over large time intervals, and the alternation of different types of activity. The change of labor in space is associated with the management of complexes of automatic systems, including various types of work. IN domestic production manifests itself in three main forms: a change in labor within the boundaries of a given profession; transition from one type of work to another; combination of main work with various types of voluntary activities. The variety of forms of manifestation of the law directly depends on the degree of development of scientific and technological progress.

It is important to note that when division of labor in enterprises should take into account not only the growth of labor productivity, but also the conditions for the comprehensive development of workers, eliminating negative influence production environment on the human body and increasing the attractiveness of work. Degree of division of labor largely depends on the specific operating conditions of the enterprise: belonging to the industry of production, type and scale of production, level of mechanization, automation, volume of output and specifics of products, etc.

The meaning of division of labor is:

• a necessary prerequisite for the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity;
• allows you to organize sequential and simultaneous processing of the object of labor in all phases of production;
• promotes the specialization of production processes and the improvement of the labor skills of the workers involved.

The unit of division of labor is the production operation, which is understood as a part of the labor process performed by one or a group of workers at one workplace, on one object of labor. A change in at least one of these signs means the completion of one operation and the beginning of another. Manufacturing operation, in turn, consists of techniques, labor actions and movements.

Labor movement represents a one-time movement of the worker’s arms, legs, and body during the labor process (for example, reaching out to a workpiece).

Labor action- this is a set of labor movements performed continuously and having a specific purpose (for example, the labor action “take a workpiece” consists of movements performed sequentially and continuously “extend your hand to the workpiece”, “grab it with your fingers”).

Labor reception- this is a set of labor actions, united by one purpose and representing a completed elementary work.

Limits of division of labor(ignoring them can have a negative impact on the organization and production results) obviously coincide with the beginning and end of a labor technique in a production operation:

1. division of labor should not lead to a decrease in the efficiency of using working time and equipment;
2. it should not be accompanied by impersonality and irresponsibility in the organization of production;
3. division of labor should not be overly fractional, so as not to complicate the design and organization of production processes and labor regulation, and also not to reduce the qualifications of workers, not to deprive work of content, not to make it monotonous and tedious.

The monotony of work is a very serious negative factor, manifested in process of deepening the division of labor in production.

Remedies against monotony can include periodic changes of jobs, elimination of the monotony of labor movements, the introduction of variable labor rhythms, regulated breaks for active recreation, etc.

Problems of division of labor:

• increase in labor productivity;
• comprehensive development of employees;
• eliminating the negative impact of the production environment on the human body;
• increasing the attractiveness of work.

Degree of division of labor largely depends on the specific operating conditions of the enterprise: belonging to the industry of production, type and scale of production, level of mechanization, automation, volume of output and specifics of products, etc. The degree of division of labor depends on the number of production operations required to produce goods using a specific technology.

Conclusion

Exactly division of labor caused the separation of various professions and occupations from each other, which contributed primarily to an increase in productivity, and the higher the level of industrial development of the country, the further this separation went. What in a wild state of society is the work of one person, in a more developed state is performed by several. necessary for the production of some finished item always distributed among a large number of people.

Division of labor, appearing in various types and forms of its manifestation, is a determining prerequisite for the development commodity production and market relations, since the concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow range of products or on certain types of them forces commodity producers to enter into exchange relations in order to obtain the benefits they lack.

Bibliography

1. Bychin B.V., Malinin S.V., Shubenkova E.V., Organization and regulation of labor. Textbook for universities - Moscow, 2003
2. Razorvin I.V., Mitin A.N., LABOR ECONOMICS, Educational and methodological complex, - Ekaterinburg, 2003
3. Karl Kautsky. "The Economic Teachings of Karl Marx" - Moscow, 2007
4. A. Smith "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations", Moscow, 1999
5. Yandex dictionary http://slovari.yandex.ru/
6. 6. World Economic Forum http://business.polbu.ru/fomichev_inttrading/ch10_xiv.html

Actually, in Marxism division of labor problem(see Division of Labor Great Soviet Encyclopedia) is revealed more declaratively, as the reason for technological progress, while the main emphasis is on productivity. Self concept of division of labor is not difficult and has been studied in detail, but I draw the attention of readers to the fact, What depth of division of labor or as it is called in the article - degree of division of labor- has never been used by anyone to characterize the economy.

Therefore, when I took level of division of labor AS A FACTOR, then he was perplexed - how did it happen that hundreds of years before him no one had thought of comparing economies by such a characteristic as the degree of division of labor. Now, in real economies, it has become possible to identify separate ones - locally isolated in territories or around the production of one product, to which Grigoriev gave the name - neoconomics

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on their gender, age, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on performing a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

Division of labor- this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the system of various types of labor activity itself is becoming more and more complex, as the labor process itself becomes more complex and deepening.

Division of labor(or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in an economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the action of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can receive much more benefits than if everyone provided themselves with everything they need.

There is also a distinction between the division of labor in the broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

In a broad sense division of labor- this is a system of types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations that are different in their characteristics and simultaneously interact with each other, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economic sciences, demography, etc. The territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the relationship between various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term “distribution of labor.”

In a narrow sense division of labor- this is the social division of labor as human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transitory social relationship. Specialization of labor is the division of types of labor by subject, which directly expresses the progress of the productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of human exploration of nature and grows with its development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it itself is influenced by the social division of labor. The latter divides human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as an individual. These partial functions are devoid of their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as demands placed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. This is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the separation of material production, science, art, etc. as separate spheres, as well as the division themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows into a class division.

Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of individual goods, professions– individual types of activities related to the production of any good.

But the division of labor does not at all mean that in our imaginary society one person will be engaged in one type of production. It may turn out that several people will have to engage in a particular type of production, or so that one person will be engaged in the production of several goods.

Why? It's all about the relationship between the size of the population's need for a particular good and the labor productivity of a particular profession. If one fisherman can catch just enough fish in a day to satisfy all members of society, then there will be just one fisherman in this household. But if one hunter from the mentioned tribe cannot shoot quails for everyone and his work is not enough to satisfy the needs of all members of the household for quails, then several people will go hunting at once. Or, for example, if one potter can produce so many pots that society cannot consume, then he will have extra time which he can use to produce some other good, such as spoons or plates.

Thus, the degree of "division" of labor depends on the size of society. For a certain population size (that is, for a certain composition and size of needs), there is its own optimal structure of occupations, in which the product produced by different producers will be just enough for all members, and all products will be produced at the lowest possible cost. With an increase in population, this optimal structure of occupations will change, the number of producers of those goods that were already produced by an individual will increase, and those types of production that were previously entrusted to one person will be entrusted to different people.

In the history of the economy, the process of division of labor went through several stages, differing in the degree of specialization of individual members of society in the production of one or another good.

The division of labor is usually divided into several types depending on the characteristics by which it is carried out.

Natural division of labor: the process of separating types of labor activity by gender and age.

Technical division of labor: determined by the nature of the means of production used, primarily equipment and technology.

Social division of labor: natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors, under the influence of which the separation and differentiation of various types of labor activity occurs.

In addition, the social division of labor includes 2 more subtypes: sectoral and territorial. Sectoral division of labor is predetermined by the production conditions, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the manufactured product. Territorial division labor is the spatial arrangement of various types of work activities. Its development is determined both by differences in natural and climatic conditions and by economic factors.

Under geographical division of labor we understand the spatial form of the social division of labor. Prerequisite The geographical division of labor consists of different countries (or regions) working for each other, so that the result of labor is transported from one place to another, so that there is thus a gap between the place of production and the place of consumption.

In a commodity society, the geographical division of labor necessarily involves the transfer of products from farm to farm, i.e. exchange, trade, but exchange in these conditions is only a sign for “recognizing” the presence of a geographical division of labor, but not its “essence”.

There are 3 forms of social division of labor:

The general division of labor is characterized by the separation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product.

Private division of labor is the process of separating individual industries within large types of production.

A single division of labor characterizes the separation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the separation of individual technological operations.

Differentiation consists in the process of separating individual industries, determined by the specifics of the means of production, technology and labor used.

Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of concentrating efforts on a narrow range of products.

Universalization is the antithesis of specialization. It is based on the production and sale of a wide range of goods and services.

Diversification is the expansion of the range of products.

The first and main statement that A. Smith puts forward, which determines the greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor and a significant share of the art, skill and intelligence with which it (progress) is directed and applied, is a consequence of the division of labor. The division of labor is the most important and unacceptable condition for the progress of the development of productive forces, the development of the economy of any state, any society. A. Smith leads simplest example the actions of the division of labor in small and large enterprises (manufacture in contemporary society) - the elementary production of pins. A worker who is not trained in this production and does not know how to handle the machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of machines was given precisely by the division of labor) can hardly make one pin a day. When an organization exists in such production, it is necessary to divide the profession into a number of specialties, each of which is a separate occupation. One worker pulls the wire, another straightens it, the third cuts it, the fourth sharpens the end, the fifth grinds it to attach the head, the manufacture of which requires two or three more independent operations, in addition to its attachment, polishing the pin itself, packaging finished products. Thus, labor in the production of pins is divided into a multi-stage series of operations, and depending on the organization of production and the size of the enterprise, they can be performed each separately (one worker - one operation), or combined into 2 - 3 (one worker - 2 - 3 operations ). Using this simple example, A. Smith asserts the undoubted priority of such a division of labor over the work of a single worker. 10 workers produced 48,000 pins per day, while one could produce 20 pins at high voltage. The division of labor in any craft, no matter how large it is introduced, causes an increase in labor productivity. The further development (up to the present day) of production in any sector of the economy was the clearest confirmation of A. Smith’s “discovery”.

Division of labor is the separation of certain types of labor activity according to common features. The process of division of labor has developed historically. Depending on certain characteristics, certain types of labor activity were “united.”

There are several types of division of labor:

• Public. It went through a number of stages, as a result of which entire branches of one or another type of activity were identified, with classes of society being distinguished.
  Stages of social division of labor:
  1. As a result of the separation of farming from gathering, agriculture was formed, and with it a class of society - the peasantry.
  2. As a result of the separation of crafts from agriculture, industry was formed. As a consequence, a class of artisans who then became industrialists;
  3. From crafts and agriculture, trade and a class emerged - the merchants.
  4. Banking and finance “follow” from trade. A class of usurers is formed.
  5. As a result, management is formed as a process for managing enterprises. A class of technocrats – the technical intelligentsia – is emerging.
• Private division of labor within industries. Entire sectors are being formed “within” industry, agriculture and other large areas of activity.
  For example, in industry there was a separation of light and heavy industry.
• Single – directly at the enterprise. For example, the allocation of departments in an enterprise.

All forms of division of labor are interconnected. “Under the pressure” of the social division of labor, in each major field of activity there was a separation of industries, which led to the separation of divisions and departments at enterprises.

Many factors influence the division of labor. This:

• Technical progress. Under its influence, new tools appear, the use of which leads to the release of new types of materials and energy;
• Automation and mechanization of production. This leads to changes in the structure of entire industries. Within the enterprise, changes occur in technological processes and in professional training.
  Improvement of technologies in individual industries. This leads to a change in the tools of production.

The social division of labor includes specialization and cooperation.
Specialization is the division of labor within an entire industry. In this case, each participant in the labor process performs a separate labor function. This is one of the main conditions for the existence of a modern market economy.
Cooperation is an association of specialized performers in the course of work.

There are several forms of cooperation:

• within the enterprise;
• within the industry;
• within society.

Specialization and cooperation lead to the fact that people strive to acquire narrow knowledge in any specific field of science and focus on one activity.
Consequences of this:

• increasing production efficiency;
• the most efficient use of available resources;
• effective use of your knowledge, skills and abilities;
• merging several industries into one production process for work efficiency. This leads to the spin-off of completely new industries and technologically new production processes.

The development of technological progress greatly influences the division of labor, the identification of new specialties and the cooperation of existing ones. With the improvement of technology, manual labor was replaced by machine labor, and the worker turned into a highly qualified specialist.