At the core economic development lies the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on their gender, age, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on performing a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

Division of labor is historical process isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activities, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation various types labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the system itself various types labor activity is becoming more and more complex, as the labor process itself becomes more complex and deepening.

Division of labor (or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in an economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the action of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can receive much more benefits than if everyone provided themselves with everything they need.

There is also a distinction between the division of labor in the broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

In a broad sense, the division of labor is a system of different types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations that are different in their characteristics and simultaneously interact with each other, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economics, demography, etc. Territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the relationship between various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term “distribution of labor.”

In a narrow sense, the division of labor is the social division of labor as a human activity in its social essence, which, unlike specialization, is a historically transitory social relationship. Specialization of labor is the division of types of labor by subject, which directly expresses the progress of the productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of human exploration of nature and grows with its development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it itself is influenced by the social division of labor. The latter dismembers human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as an individual. These partial functions are devoid of their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as demands placed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. This is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the identification as separate spheres of material production, science, art, etc., as well as the dismemberment of them themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows into a class division.

Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of certain goods, professions appeared in society - separate types of activities related to the production of any good.

The division of labor in an organization refers to the division of people's activities in the process of joint work.

The division of labor involves the specialization of individual performers to perform a certain part collaboration, which cannot be accomplished without clear coordination of the actions of individual workers or their groups.

The division of labor is characterized by qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Division of labor according to quality This feature involves separating types of work according to their complexity. Performing such work requires special knowledge and practical skills. Division of labor according to quantitative the attribute ensures the establishment of a certain proportionality between qualitatively different types of labor. The combination of these characteristics largely determines the organization of work as a whole.

Ensuring a rational division of labor at the enterprise within the framework of one or another labor collective(team, site, workshop, enterprise) is one of important areas improving labor organization. The choice of forms of division largely determines the layout and equipment of workplaces, their maintenance, methods and techniques of labor, its rationing, payment and provision of favorable conditions. production conditions. The division of labor in an enterprise, in a workshop, determines the quantitative and qualitative proportions between individual types of labor, the selection and placement of workers in the production process, their training and advanced training.

Correctly chosen forms of division of labor and its cooperation make it possible to ensure rational workload of workers, clear coordination and synchronicity in their work, and reduce time loss and equipment downtime. Ultimately, the amount of labor costs per unit of production and, consequently, the level of labor productivity depend on the forms of division of labor. This is the economic essence of the rational division of labor.

At the same time, the social aspect of the scientifically based division of labor plays a great role. Right choice forms of division of labor helps to increase the content of labor, which ensures workers’ satisfaction with their work, the development of collectivism and interchangeability, increased responsibility for the results of collective work, and the strengthening of labor discipline.

At enterprises, the following types of division of labor are distinguished: technological, functional, professional and qualification.

Technological division of labor involves the separation of groups of workers on the basis of their performance of technologically homogeneous work in individual phases, types of work and operations (at engineering and metalworking enterprises - foundry, forging, machining, assembly and other work; at mining enterprises - mining preparation and cleaning work; at enterprises of worsted production of the textile industry - scattering, opening, carding, tape, roving, spinning, twisting, winding, sizing, weaving and other works). Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, for example assembly work, depending on the degree of fragmentation of labor processes, operational, detail and subject division of labor is distinguished.

The technological division of labor largely determines the functional, professional and qualification division of labor in an enterprise. It allows you to determine the need for workers by profession and specialty, and the level of specialization of their labor.

Functional The division of labor differs in the role of individual groups of workers in the production process. On this basis, first of all, two large groups of workers are distinguished - main and service (auxiliary). Each of these groups is divided into functional subgroups (for example, a group of service workers - into subgroups engaged in repair, adjustment, instrumental, loading and unloading work, etc.).

Provision at enterprises correct ratio the number of main and auxiliary workers on the basis of a rational functional division of their labor, a significant improvement in the organization of labor of service workers - important reserves for increasing labor productivity in industry.

Professional The division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization of workers and involves performing work in a particular profession (specialty) at the workplace. Based on the volume of each type of work, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession for a site, workshop, production, enterprise and association as a whole.

Qualification division of labor is determined of varying complexity, requiring a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers. For each profession, a composition of operations or works of varying degrees of complexity is established, which are grouped according to the assigned working tariff categories.

The process of improving the division of labor must be continuous, taking into account constantly changing production conditions, contributing to the achievement of the best performance indicators.

The development of measures to improve the division of labor is usually preceded by a quantitative assessment of the division of labor. To do this, the division of labor coefficient is calculated ( Kr.t), recommended by the Labor Research Institute. It characterizes the degree of specialization of workers and is calculated taking into account the time they spent performing functions corresponding to their qualifications and provided for by production tasks, according to the formula

TO r.t. =1 - /t cm *np (1)

where is the time spent on performing functions not provided for in the tariff and qualification reference book for workers in a given profession, min;

Time spent on performing functions not provided for in the technological documentation, min;

tcm - shift duration, min;

n.p.- total (on payroll) number of workers at the enterprise;

The total loss of working time across the enterprise associated with downtime for technical and organizational reasons, as well as violations of labor discipline.

From the above formula it is clear that the less time spent on performing an operation (works) not provided for in the tariff and qualification reference book, standardization or technological documentation, the more numeric value coefficient and, consequently, the more rational the division of labor with its accepted cooperation.

In the conditions of any enterprise there are opportunities to choose the most rational forms of division of labor. In each case, the choice should be made on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the specifics of production, the nature of the work performed, requirements for their quality, the degree of workload of workers and a number of other factors.

IN modern conditions increasing the efficiency of labor by improving its division should be carried out on the basis of a wider combination of professions, expanding the scope of application of multi-machine (multi-unit) services, and further development of the collective (team) form of organizing workers' labor.

The search and implementation of new forms of division of labor require their mandatory experimental testing. Only in practice can one finally establish the effectiveness of one or another form of division of labor and identify both its positive and negative aspects.

The main direction for improving the division of labor is choosing the best option for each specific site, taking into account economic, technical, technological, psychophysiological and social requirements.

The main economic requirement for the optimal division of labor is to ensure production output in given volumes and High Quality at the lowest labor, material and financial costs.

Technical and technological requirements provide for the implementation of each element of work by the appropriate contractor this equipment at the established time work time. These requirements decisively determine the technological, functional, professional and qualification division of labor.

Psychophysiological requirements are aimed at preventing overwork of workers due to heavy physical exertion, nervous tension, impoverishment of work content, monotony or physical inactivity (insufficient physical activity), which often leads to premature fatigue and decreased productivity.

Social requirements require the presence of creative elements in the work, increasing the content and attractiveness of work.

As a rule, these requirements are not met by a single organizational solution, so there is a need to choose one option for the division of labor. The complexity of this task lies in its versatility, in the choice of criteria for determining boundaries, the multivariate ways of dividing labor in various types enterprises.

It is known that as a result of the division of labor, specialization of workers occurs, which, on the one hand, ensures a reduction in labor costs, and on the other, can impoverish its content, lead to an increase in monotony (after a certain limit) and a decrease in productivity. Increasing the workload of performers does not always mean an increase in the productive operating time of the equipment; the inverse relationship is also possible.

With the establishment of more intense time standards, the required number of performers decreases, but the likelihood of a decrease in the quality of work increases. Providing creative elements as part of the operations performed is often associated with additional time spent per unit of production, but it increases the content and attractiveness of the work, reduces staff turnover, etc.

Choice of the most optimal solution must balance the action various factors and ensure the most efficient achievement of production goals. To do this, it is sometimes necessary to conduct special experiments and research using mathematical methods and computer technology (to select the best option). However, the economic and social effect of these works should significantly cover the costs of their implementation.

Designing the division of labor in enterprises by making optimal organizational decisions is very effective and is one of the most promising directions improving labor organization.

The division of labor is the most important factor of production, largely determining the forms of labor organization.

Faculty of International Relations

Abstract on the topic:
"Division of labor"

Completed by a 1st year student

Solodysheva Marina Sergeevna

Specialty: customs affairs

On the subject " Economic theory»

Minsk, 2005

Division of labor: concept and General characteristics.

The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on their gender, age, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on performing a strictly defined type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.

There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.

Division of labor- this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the system of various types of labor activity itself is becoming more and more complex, as the labor process itself becomes more complex and deepening.

Division of labor (or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in an economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the action of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can receive much more benefits than if everyone provided themselves with everything they need.

There is also a distinction between the division of labor in the broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).

In a broad sense division of labor- this is a system of types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations that are different in their characteristics and simultaneously interact with each other, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economic sciences, demography, etc. The territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the relationship between various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term “distribution of labor.”

In the narrow sense division of labor- this is the social division of labor as human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transitory social relationship. Specialization of labor is the division of types of labor by subject, which directly expresses the progress of the productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of human exploration of nature and grows with its development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it itself is influenced by the social division of labor. The latter divides human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as an individual. These partial functions are devoid of their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as demands placed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. This is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the separation of material production, science, art, etc. as separate spheres, as well as the division themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows into a class division.

Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of individual goods, professions– individual types of activities related to the production of any good .

But the division of labor does not at all mean that in our imaginary society one person will be engaged in one type of production. It may turn out that several people will have to do a separate species production, or so that one person will be engaged in the production of several goods.

Why? It's all about the relationship between the size of the population's need for a particular good and the labor productivity of a particular profession. If one fisherman can catch just enough fish in a day to satisfy all members of society, then there will be just one fisherman in this household. But if one hunter from the mentioned tribe cannot shoot quails for everyone and his work is not enough to satisfy the needs of all members of the household for quails, then several people will go hunting at once. Or, for example, if one potter can produce so many pots that society cannot consume, then he will have extra time which he can use to produce some other good, such as spoons or plates.

Thus, the degree of "division" of labor depends on the size of society. For a certain population size (that is, for a certain composition and size of needs), there is its own optimal structure of occupations, in which the product produced by different manufacturers, there will be just enough for all members, and all products will be produced at the lowest possible cost. With an increase in population, this optimal structure of occupations will change, the number of producers of those goods that were already produced by an individual will increase, and those types of production that were previously entrusted to one person will be entrusted different people.

In the history of the economy, the process of division of labor went through several stages, differing in the degree of specialization of individual members of society in the production of one or another good.

The division of labor is usually divided into several types depending on the characteristics by which it is carried out.

v Natural division of labor: the process of separating types of labor activity by gender and age.

v Technical division of labor: determined by the nature of the means of production used, primarily equipment and technology.

v Social division of labor: natural and technical division labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors, under the influence of which the separation and differentiation of various types of labor activity occurs.

In addition, the social division of labor includes 2 more subtypes: sectoral and territorial. Sectoral division of labor is predetermined by the production conditions, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the manufactured product. Territorial division labor is the spatial arrangement of various types of work activities. Its development is determined both by differences in natural and climatic conditions and by economic factors.

Under geographical division of labor we understand the spatial form of the social division of labor. Prerequisite The geographical division of labor consists of different countries (or regions) working for each other, so that the result of labor is transported from one place to another, so that there is thus a gap between the place of production and the place of consumption.

In a commodity society, the geographical division of labor necessarily involves the transfer of products from farm to farm, i.e. exchange, trade, but exchange in these conditions is only a sign for “recognizing” the presence of a geographical division of labor, but not its “essence”.

There are 3 forms of social division of labor:

þ The general division of labor is characterized by the separation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product.

þ Private division of labor is the process of separating individual industries within large types of production.

þ Unit division of labor characterizes the separation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the separation of individual technological operations.

Ø Differentiation consists in the process of separating individual industries, determined by the specifics of the means of production, technology and labor used.

Ø Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of concentrating efforts on a narrow range of products.

Ø Universalization is the antithesis of specialization. It is based on the production and sale of a wide range of goods and services.

Ø Diversification is the expansion of the range of products.

The first and main statement that A. Smith puts forward, which defines the greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor and a significant share of the art, skill and intelligence with which it (progress) is directed and applied, is a consequence of the division of labor. The division of labor is the most important and unacceptable condition for the progress of the development of productive forces, the development of the economy of any state, any society. A. Smith leads simplest example the actions of the division of labor in small and large enterprises (manufacture in contemporary society) - the elementary production of pins. A worker who is not trained in this production and does not know how to handle the machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of machines was given precisely by the division of labor) can hardly make one pin a day. When an organization exists in such production, it is necessary to divide the profession into a number of specialties, each of which is a separate occupation. One worker pulls the wire, another straightens it, the third cuts it, the fourth sharpens the end, the fifth grinds it to attach the head, the manufacture of which requires two or three more independent operations, in addition to its attachment, polishing the pin itself, packaging finished products. Thus, labor in the production of pins is divided into a multi-stage series of operations, and depending on the organization of production and the size of the enterprise, they can be performed each separately (one worker - one operation), or combined into 2 - 3 (one worker - 2 - 3 operations ). Using this simple example, A. Smith asserts the undoubted priority of such a division of labor over the work of a single worker. 10 workers produced 48,000 pins per day, while one could produce 20 pins at high voltage. The division of labor in any craft, no matter how large it is introduced, causes an increase in labor productivity. The further development (up to the present day) of production in any sector of the economy was the clearest confirmation of A. Smith’s “discovery”.

Strictly speaking, the division of labor in human societies could always be found. After all, people have never existed alone, and cases of the emergence of a society and economy consisting of one person (such as Robinson Crusoe’s economy) were quite rare exceptions. People have always lived as at least a family or a tribe.

But the development of the division of labor in the economy of any society goes through several successive stages from a primitive state to an extremely complex scheme for the distribution of responsibilities. This evolution can be schematically represented as follows.

First stage. This is the natural division of labor within primitive society. In such a society there was always some distribution of responsibilities, determined partly by the nature of each person, partly by customs, and partly by the economies of scale you know. As a rule, men were engaged in hunting and war, and women looked after the hearth and nursed children. In addition, in almost any tribe one could find such “professions” as leader and priest (shaman, sorcerer, etc.).

Second stage. As the number of members of society grows, the need for each good increases and it becomes possible for individuals to concentrate on the production of individual goods. Therefore, in societies there appear different professions(artisans, farmers, cattle breeders, etc.).

The process of identifying professions begins, of course, with the production of tools. Even in the Stone Age (!) there were craftsmen engaged in hewing and polishing stone tools. With the discovery of iron, one of the most common professions in the past appears blacksmith.

Characteristic feature This stage is when the manufacturer produces all (or almost all) possible products related to his profession (usually the processing of some type of raw material). For example, a blacksmith makes everything from nails and horseshoes to plows and swords, a carpenter makes everything from stools to cabinets, etc.

At this stage of the division of labor, part of the artisan's family members or even the entire family helps him in production, performing certain operations. For example, a blacksmith or carpenter can be helped by his sons and brothers, and a weaver or baker can be helped by his wife and daughters.

Third stage. With an increase in population and, accordingly, the size of demand for individual products, artisans begin to concentrate on the production of some one benefits. Some blacksmiths make horseshoes, others only knives and scissors, others only nails different sizes, fourth only weapons, etc.

IN Ancient Rus' For example, there were the following names of wood craftsmen: woodworkers, shipbuilders, bridge builders, woodworkers, builders, town workers(fortification of cities), vicious(production of battering guns), archers, crossmen, barrels, sleigh riders, wheelwrights etc.

An important factor influencing labor productivity is labor cooperation. The deeper the division of labor and the narrower the specialization of production becomes, the more producers become interdependent, the more necessary is consistency and coordination of actions between different industries. To operate in conditions of interdependence, labor cooperation is necessary, both in the conditions of the enterprise and in the conditions of the whole society.

Labor cooperation- a form of labor organization and work performance, based on the joint participation in a single labor process of a significant number of workers performing various operations of this process.

Form of organization social labor, with which big number people jointly participate in the same labor process or in different, but interconnected labor processes. Along with the division of labor, labor cooperation is a fundamental factor in the growth of productivity and efficiency in all areas professional activity.

Labor cooperation is the unity and coordination of joint actions of producers, various industries and sectors of the economy.

Labor cooperation allows you to avoid many mistakes, such as duplication of production and overproduction. On the other hand, consistency and coordination of actions, the unification of many efforts makes it possible to do what is beyond the power of one manufacturer or one enterprise. In the case of simple labor cooperation, which takes place, for example, in the construction of houses and hydroelectric power stations, the beneficial effect of cooperation is obvious. Labor cooperation takes place in all spheres of economic activity, it takes a wide variety of forms .

World experience shows that cooperation between labor and production is an objective historical process that is inherent in all methods of production, in countries with any socio-economic system. In production cooperation, advanced ideas and achievements in the fields of fundamental science, research and development (R&D), production, design, management and information technologies are combined and materialized.

Cooperation in modern world becomes the reproductive base of socio-economic and scientific-technical progress of the countries of the world, the core of world economic processes, regional economic integration, transnationalization (production, R&D, information and financial sphere, etc.), international industrial cooperation, globalization of the world economy. This form of interaction has become an accelerator for the structural restructuring of industry, its sectoral and interdepartmental complexes on a new technological basis, including the widespread use of electronic and information technologies.

International specialization and cooperation of production corresponds to a high level of development of the productive forces and acts as one of the most important objective prerequisites for the further development of the internationalization of economic life and strengthening the interconnection of national economies. Now hundreds of thousands of semi-finished products are circulating on the foreign market, analogues of which only one and a half to two decades ago were circulated only at the intra-company level.

It was the division of labor that caused separation from each other various professions and occupations, which contributed primarily to an increase in productivity, and the higher the level of industrial development of the country, the further this division goes. What in a wild state of society is the work of one person, in a more developed state is performed by several. The labor required to produce any finished object is always distributed among big amount of people.

The division of labor, appearing in various types and forms of its manifestation, is a determining prerequisite for the development of commodity production and market relations, since the concentration of labor efforts on the production of a narrow range of products or on certain types of them forces commodity producers to enter into exchange relations in order to obtain what they lack good J

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Let's consider the types of social division of labor:

General division of labor involves the process of separating various types of labor activity within the whole society.

Private division of labor is the process of separating various types of activities into industries and sub-sectors.

Unit division of labor means the separation of various types of work within an organization, enterprise, within its structural divisions, as well as the distribution of work between individual employees. 19

There is a classical scheme according to which the division of labor in an organization is carried out in the following forms: technological, functional, professional, qualification.

Technological division of labor - this is the division of the production process into technically homogeneous work; division of the production process into stages, phases, operations.

Within the framework of technological division, operational, objective and detailed division of labor is distinguished.

Operational division of labor involves distribution and specialization to perform individual operations or stages of the technological process by individual workers, placement of workers to ensure their rational employment and optimal loading of equipment.

Subject division of labor assigns to a specific performer a whole range of works that allows the product to be fully manufactured.

Detailed division of labor- This is a specialization in the production of individual parts of the future finished product.

The technological division of labor determines the placement of workers in accordance with production technology and significantly affects the level of content of labor. With narrow specialization, monotony appears in the work; with too broad specialization, the likelihood of poor quality work increases. The responsible task of the labor organizer is to find the optimal level of technological division of labor. 20

Functional division of labor - separation of various types of labor activity and the performance of specific work by relevant groups of workers specializing in performing production or management functions of different content and economic significance.

The functional division of labor in real conditions acts as a division of workers into individual functions.

On this basis, personnel are divided into workers and employees. Employees are divided into managers (line and functional), specialists (workers performing certain economic, legal and other special functions) and technical performers (workers performing clerical functions). In turn, workers can form functional groups of main workers, service workers and auxiliary workers.

main ones, engaged in the direct production of products or performing basic work;

auxiliary ones, who provide the work of the main ones with their labor;

service workers who do not directly participate in the technological process, but create conditions for the work of main and auxiliary workers. 21

The classification of operations that meets the requirements of the division of labor between managers, specialists and technical performers consists of three interrelated groups of functions:

1) organizational and administrative - their content is determined by the purpose of the operation and its role in the management process. Performed mainly by managers;

2) analytical and constructive functions are predominantly creative in nature, contain elements of novelty and are performed by specialists;

3) information technology functions are repetitive in nature and are associated with the use of technical means. Performed by technical performers. 22

Professional division of labor consists in the fact that within each functional group there is a division between workers depending on their professions.

As a result of the professional division of labor, there is a process of separation of professions, and within them, the identification of specialties. A profession is a type of activity of a person who has certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training. Specialty is a type of profession, the specialization of an employee within the profession. 23

Based on this form of division of labor, the required number of workers in different professions is established.

Qualification division of labor - division of labor of performers depending on the complexity, accuracy and responsibility of the work they perform, in accordance with professional knowledge and work experience. 24

An expression of the qualification division of labor is the distribution of work and workers by category, and employees by position. The division of labor is carried out according to the level of qualifications of workers, based on the required qualifications of the work. This division forms the qualification structure of the organization’s personnel.

In addition to those noted above, there is also a vertical and horizontal division of labor.

Vertical division of labor in an organization results in a hierarchy of management levels. A top-level manager manages the activities of middle and lower-level managers, i.e. formally he has more power and a higher status. 25 With a vertical division of labor, each manager has an area of ​​activity for which he is responsible (sphere of control) or a certain number of workers who are subordinate to him. A so-called control pyramid is formed. In Fig. Figure 1 shows four such levels of workers.

Rice. 1 Vertical division of labor

The diagram shows that there is a high, middle and low level. Top-level (or top-level) managers are general directors and their deputies. The work of senior managers is large-scale and complex. They carry out administrative management and carry out general strategic planning.

The work of middle-level managers is dominated by solving tactical problems. This category of personnel includes managers heading structural divisions and departments of the organization.

Middle-level managers are the purveyors of the organization's policies and at the same time directly manage the execution of processes and operations. Among the most important works The tasks they perform include the following:

management and control of the progress of work;

transmission of information from top to bottom and bottom to top;

work planning;

organization of work;

employee motivation;

maintaining internal and external contacts;

making report. 26

Due to the tendency to delegate authority, middle-level managers often have to solve the problem of developing divisional development policies; in addition, they bear great responsibility for organizing the work of performers to implement plans for organizational changes, launched from above. 27

Lower-level managers communicate directly with performers (workers). Their responsibilities include solving primarily operational problems. Most often, the work of lower-level managers is routine in nature: decisions related to completing tasks and optimizing the use of resources allocated for this. 28 Therefore, they are the ones who are directly responsible for the work of the performers. Also, the responsibilities of lower-level managers include not only resolving the multitude of issues and tasks that arise here, but also analyzing operational situations and timely transfer of the most important information to the next, middle level for making decisions that are important for other subsystems or the organization as a whole.

In the textbook N.I. Kabushkin’s “Fundamentals of Management Network” states that in the course of the vertical division of labor: “... relationships of subordination are formed - relationships between higher and lower levels of management (i.e., between those who make decisions and those who carry them out). Subordination relationships appear after the top manager makes a decision and transfers it to a lower level for execution. Someone must take on the responsibilities of a captain in order to determine the responsibilities of subordinates, plan, organize, coordinate and control all structures and links of the organization. In such work there are always two moments: intellectual (preparing and making decisions) and volitional (implementing them).” 29

Horizontal division of labor - This is a division of labor in which the entire volume of work is divided into small groups. This division involves the formation of functional subsystems. Figure 2 shows a classic example. These are functional subsystems such as marketing, production, finance, personnel, and research. In horizontal division of labor, specialists are distributed among different functional areas and are assigned to perform tasks that are important from the point of view of that functional area. thirty

Rice. 2 Subsystems of horizontal division of labor

All organizations implement a horizontal division of labor, breaking down all work into its component tasks. Larger organizations accomplish this division by creating departments or divisions, which are further subdivided into smaller units. Management is necessary to coordinate all the tasks of the organization. 31

N.I. Kabushkin notes that “in the process of horizontal division of labor, coordination relations (coordination relations) are embedded in the work collective. They presuppose the coordination of actions of employees and managers of departments that are not subordinate to each other, belonging to the same level of management and carrying out joint activities to achieve a common goal. These relationships are not administrative; All employees are forced to enter into such relationships by the common goal of the organization. An example could be the relationship between heads of departments of one management body or heads of structural divisions of one department.” 32

Based on the above, it should be noted that the division of labor means the simultaneous coexistence of various types of labor activity and plays an important role in the organization of labor, because:

It is a necessary element of the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity;

Allows you to organize sequential and simultaneous processing of the subject of labor at all stages of production;

Promotes the specialization of production processes (each production is limited to the production of a certain type of homogeneous product) and the improvement of the labor skills of the workers involved in it. 33

Types of division of labor

As you know, there are three types of social division of labor:

• o general, or division of labor between large spheres of material production (industry, Agriculture, transport, communications, etc.);
• o private, or division of labor within these large areas (mechanical engineering, instrument making and other industries; livestock farming, crop production and other agricultural sectors);
• o single, or division of labor within one enterprise in which finished products are created. The concept of “enterprise” in this case is interpreted in a broad sense - we mean specialized enterprises where elements of, for example, a complex machine (finished product) are manufactured.

Consequently, from the point of view of global analysis in the field of the world economy, we are faced with three types of MRI:

• o international general division of labor;
• o international private division of labor;
• o international unit division of labor.

Types of division of labor

From the point of view of the territorial aspect, it is customary to distinguish two types of division of labor:

• o interregional (in this case we are talking about regions of one country);
• o international as the highest form (stage) of development of the socio-territorial division of labor between countries, allowing for the concentration of labor of certain products in certain countries. Approximate diagram global social division of labor is presented below (in Fig. 2.3).

Impact of MRI on factors of production

MRI directly affects factors of production. Historically, it was associated with the human environment. In some countries and territories, tribes could successfully survive due to the presence of fertile lands, the proximity of rivers necessary to make long journeys, transport goods, the presence of forests or reeds from which large boats (ships) can be built, etc. In other cases natural conditions communities of people were not allowed to develop dynamically, and they disappeared. Despite all the paradoxes, these tragic events from the distant past of mankind are still relevant today. The point is that only active activity, based on highly skilled labor, with goals clearly formulated by society, gives dynamism and mobility to factors of production as sources of development. The mere presence of, for example, natural resources on the territory of the country cannot ensure the prosperity of society. For example, modern Sudan (like many other countries) is one of richest countries on the abundance and diversity of natural resources. But today the population of this country lives hardly better than 50 years ago, when it gained independence from the British crown.

Rice. 2.3.

However, MRT is not limited solely to natural, climatic and soil conditions, otherwise it is quite possible to assume that “African countries specialize, among other things, in the production of tropical fruits, and the countries of Northern Europe specialize in catching northern varieties of fish, which they themselves consume.” Natural factors were of exceptional importance in the division at the lower stages of human development into pastoral and agricultural tribes or tribes specializing in fishing or forest animals, etc. These factors also play an important role in the development of modern national economies, but the decisive role belongs to other factors associated with intellectual labor, which gave rise to modern high-tech production, sharply increased labor productivity and production efficiency, primarily in the developed segment of the world economy (the “Great Triad” , NIS, partly in China, India and Brazil).

Thus, the most important factor progress is the MRI process, which is based on increasing economic efficiency production various goods and services in different countries. This simultaneously presupposes its subsequent successful cross-country cooperation in its developed forms. National production cooperation of this kind allows the country to successfully promote diverse forms (and types) of international specialization and use them for the purposes of national development.

The influence of the international division of labor on the world economy

The inclusion of the national economies of countries in the world economic system on a profitable basis, more than ever before, depends today on the will and wisdom of national governments, since the factor of state influence in the economic process in all countries is extremely significant. Integration or disintegration, strict protectionism or regulated regime, trade wars or free trade - all this is concretely reflected in the economic policies of states pursued by their governments. Therefore, the task facing these countries is to bring their national economies into line with the requirements of the world economy and eliminate obstacles to development foreign economic relations, facilitate the entry of national economic entities into foreign markets and the influx of productive capital into their countries.

At the same time, of course, we cannot talk about blind subordination of national-state interests to anyone; it is necessary to take into account the requirements of the world market and ensure a reasonable balance of interests, which largely depends on statesmen, their art and professionalism, and dedication to the interests of their countries . The decline of productive forces in the Russian economy in the 1990s. - to a large extent, the fault of the reformers themselves, who blindly and dogmatically tried to transfer the experience of other countries into conditions that were inadequate to it and, moreover, without being able or knowing how to do this. Today we can say that a full-fledged rejection of autarky by almost all CIS participants is happening inconsistently, even spasmodically, and rather only at the political level.

Country participation in MRI, as more than 100 years of experience shows, can be different types.

First type. These are mature forms of MRI, when industrialized countries exchange goods and services based on their needs; It's not just the raw materials that every National economy, but above all finished products.

Second type. This is a kind of former colonial division of labor, when developed countries supply mainly finished products to less developed ones; and in the opposite direction raw materials and semi-finished products are sent. Of course, poor countries rich in raw materials should participate in MRI through the resources they have. But the problem is that if they do not simultaneously create their industrial potential using revenues from raw materials, this system is consolidated through a powerful production and raw materials infrastructure, bilateral and multilateral agreements; through the formation of the habit among the local elite to receive easy income without bothering themselves complex work on the creation and maintenance of a modern industrial base, etc.