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27. Introduction - Katzman MM. Electrical cars- n1.doc

SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

M. M. KATSMAN

“Federal Institute for Educational Development” as a textbook for use in the educational process of educational institutions implementing the Federal State Educational Standard for Secondary Professional Education in the group of specialties 140400 “Electrical power and electrical engineering”

12th edition, stereotypical

REVIEWER:

E. P. Rudobaba (Moscow Evening Electromechanical

technical school named after L. B. Krasina)

Katsman M. M.

K 307 Electric cars: textbook for students. institutions prof. education / M. M. Katsman. - 12th ed., erased. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2013. - 496 p.

ISBN 978&5&7695&9705&3

The textbook discusses the theory, principle of operation, design and analysis of operating modes of electrical machines and transformers, both general and special purpose, which have become widespread in various branches of technology.

The textbook can be used when mastering professional module PM.01. "Organization Maintenance and repair of electrical and electromechanical equipment" (MDK.01.01) in specialty 140448 " Technical operation and maintenance of electrical and electromechanical equipment.”

For students of secondary institutions vocational education. May be useful for university students.

UDC 621.313(075.32) BBK 31.26ya723

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Academy Publishing Center, and its reproduction in any way without the consent of the copyright holder is prohibited

© M. M. Katsman, 2006

© T.I.Svetova, heiress of Katsman M.M., 2011

© Educational and publishing Center "Academy", 2011

ISBN 978 5 7695 9705 3 © Design. Publishing center "Academy", 2011

PREFACE

The textbook is written in accordance with training programs subject "Electrical machines" for the specialties "Electrical machines and devices", "Electrical insulating, cable and capacitor equipment" and "Technical operation, maintenance and repair of electrical and electromechanical equipment" of secondary vocational educational institutions.

The book contains the basics of theory, description of designs and analysis of the operational properties of transformers and electrical machines. In addition, it provides examples of problem solving, which will certainly contribute to better understanding the issues being studied.

The textbook adopts the following order of presentation of the material: transformers, asynchronous machines, synchronous machines, commutator machines. This sequence of study makes it easier to master the course and most fully corresponds to the current state and trends in the development of electrical engineering. Along with general-purpose electrical machines, the textbook examines some types of transformers and special-purpose electrical machines and provides information on the technical level modern series electrical machines with a description of their features design.

The main attention in the textbook is paid to revealing the physical essence of the phenomena and processes that determine the operation of the devices under consideration.

The method of presentation of the material adopted in the book is based on many years of experience in teaching the subject “Electrical machines”.

INTRODUCTION

IN 1. Purpose of electrical machines

and transformers

Electrification is a widespread introduction into industry, Agriculture, transport and everyday life of electrical energy generated at powerful power plants united by high voltage electrical networks into energy systems.

Electrification is carried out through devices produced by the electrical industry. The main branch of this industry is electrical engineering, engaged in the development and manufacture of electrical machines and transformers.

Electric machine is an electromechanical device that carries out the mutual transformation of mechanical and electrical energies. Electrical energy is generated at power plants by electrical machines - generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.

The main part of electricity (up to 80%) is generated at thermal power plants, where, when burning chemical fuels (coal, peat, gas), water is heated and converted into steam high pressure. The latter is served in steam turbine, where, expanding, the turbine rotor rotates ( thermal energy in the turbine it is converted into mechanical). The rotation of the turbine rotor is transmitted to the shaft of the generator (turbogenerator). As a result of electromagnetic processes occurring in the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

The process of generating electricity at nuclear power plants is similar to the process at a thermal power plant, with the only difference being that nuclear fuel is used instead of chemical fuel.

In hydraulic power plants, the process of generating electricity is as follows: water raised by a dam to a certain level is discharged onto the impeller of a hydraulic turbine; The mechanical energy obtained in this case by rotating the turbine wheel is transferred to the shaft of an electric generator (hydrogen generator), in which mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

In the process of consuming electrical energy, it is converted into other types of energy (thermal, mechanical, chemical). About 70% of electricity is used to drive machines, mechanisms, Vehicle, i.e. for pre

its formation into mechanical energy. This transformation is carried out by electric machines - electric motors.

An electric motor is the main element of the electric drive of working machines. Good controllability of electrical energy and simplicity of its distribution have made it possible to widely use multimotor electric drives of working machines in industry, when individual links working machine are driven by their own engines. A multi-motor drive significantly simplifies the mechanism of a working machine (the number of mechanical transmissions connecting individual parts of the machine is reduced) and creates great opportunities for automating various technological processes. Electric motors are widely used in transport as traction motors that drive wheel pairs of electric locomotives, electric trains, trolleybuses, etc.

Behind Lately the use of electric machines has increased significantly low power- micromachines with a power of up to several hundred watts. Such electric machines are used in instrumentation devices, automation equipment and household appliances - vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, fans, etc. The power of these motors is low, the design is simple and reliable, and they are produced in large quantities.

Electrical energy generated at power plants must be transferred to places of its consumption, primarily to large industrial centers of the country that are remote from powerful power plants for many hundreds and sometimes thousands of kilometers. But transmitting electricity is not enough. It must be distributed among many different consumers - industrial enterprises, residential buildings, etc. Electricity is transmitted over long distances at high voltage (up to 500 kV or more), which ensures minimal electrical losses in power lines. Therefore, in the process of transmitting and distributing electrical energy, it is necessary to repeatedly increase and decrease the voltage. This process is carried out using electromagnetic devices called transformers. A transformer is not an electrical machine, since its work is not related to the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa. Transformers transform only the voltage of electrical energy. Moreover, a transformer is a static device and has no moving parts. However, the electromagnetic processes occurring in transformers are similar to the processes occurring during the operation of electrical machines. Moreover, electrical machines and transformers are characterized by the same nature of electromagnetic and energy processes that arise during the interaction of a magnetic field and a conductor with current. For these reasons, transformers form an integral part of the course of electrical machines.

The theoretical foundations of the operation of electric machines were laid in 1821 by M. Faraday, who established the possibility of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy and created the first model of an electric motor. The works of scientists D. Maxwell and E. H. Lenz played an important role in the development of electric machines. The idea of ​​mutual conversion of electrical and mechanical energies was further developed in the works of outstanding Russian scientists B. S. Jacobi and M. O. Dolivo Dobrovolsky, who developed and created electric motor designs suitable for practical use.

Great achievements in the creation of transformers and their practical application belong to the remarkable Russian inventor P. N. Yablochkov. At the beginning of the 20th century, almost all the main types of electrical machines and transformers were created and the foundations of their theory were developed.

IN Currently, domestic electrical engineering has achieved significant success. Further technical progress defines as the main task the practical implementation of electrical engineering achievements in the actual development of electric drive devices for industrial devices and household appliances. The main task of scientific and technical progress is technical re-equipment and reconstruction of production. Electrification plays a significant role in solving this problem. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the increasing environmental requirements for sources of electricity and, along with traditional ones, it is necessary to develop environmentally friendly (alternative) methods of producing electricity using the energy of the sun, wind, sea ​​tides, thermal springs.

IN conditions of scientific and technical development great importance acquire work related to improving the quality of manufactured electrical machines and transformers. Solving this problem is an important means of developing international economic cooperation. Relevant scientific institutions

And industrial enterprises Russia is working to create new types of electrical machines and transformers that satisfy modern requirements to the quality and technical and economic indicators of manufactured products.

AT 2. Electrical machines - electromechanical

energy converters

The study of electrical machines is based on knowledge of the physical essence of electrical and magnetic phenomena, presented in the course “Theoretical Foundations of Electrical Engineering”. Therefore, before

Rice. AT 2. Rules " right hand» ( a) and “left hand” (b)

Rice. B.1. To the concepts of “elementary generator” (a) and “elementary engine” (b)

Before starting to study the course “Electrical machines”, let us remember the physical meaning of some laws and phenomena that underlie the principle of operation of electric machines, primarily the law of electromagnetic induction.

During the operation of an electric machine in generator mode, a transformation occurs mechanical energy to electric. This process is based on law of electromagnetic induction: if an external force F acts on a conductor placed in a magnetic field and moves it (Fig. B.1, a), for example, from left to right perpendicular to the induction vector B magnetic field with speed v, then the conductor will be induced electromotive force(EMF)

where B is magnetic induction, T; l is the active length of the conductor, i.e. the length of its part located in the magnetic field, m; v is the speed of movement of the conductor, m/s.

To determine the direction of the EMF, you should use the “right hand” rule (Fig. B.2, a). Applying this rule, we determine the direction of the EMF in the conductor (“from us”). If the ends

conductors are closed to an external resistance R (consumer), then under the influence of EMF E

a current of the same direction will arise in the conductor. So

Thus, a conductor in a magnetic field can be considered in this case as elementary generator, in which mechanical energy is expended on moving the conductor with speed

stu v.

As a result of the interaction of current I with the magnetic field, an electromagnetic force appears on the conductor

The direction of the force Fem can be determined by the “left hand” rule (Fig. B.2, b). In the case under consideration, this force is directed from right to left, i.e., opposite to the movement of the conductor. Thus, in the elementary generator under consideration, the force Fem is braking with respect to driving force F. When uniform motion conductor, these forces are equal, i.e. F = Fem. Multiplying both sides of the equality by the speed of the conductor v, we obtain

Fv = Fem v.

Substituting the value Fem from (B.2) into this expression, we obtain

The left side of equality (B.3) determines the value of the mechanical power expended on moving the conductor in a magnetic field; right part- the value of electrical power developed in a closed circuit by electric current I. The equal sign between these parts once again confirms that in the generator the mechanical power Fv expended by an external force is converted into electrical power EI.

If an external force F is not applied to the conductor, but voltage U is applied to it from an electrical source so that the current I in the conductor has the direction shown in Fig. B.1, b, then only the electromagnetic force Fem will act on the conductor. Under the influence of this force, the conductor will begin to move in the magnetic field. In this case, an emf will be induced in the conductor in the direction opposite to the voltage U. Thus, part of the voltage U applied to the conductor is balanced by the emf E induced in this conductor, and the other part constitutes the voltage drop in the conductor:

From this equality it follows that electric power(UI), entering the conductor from the network, is partially converted into mechanical (Fem v), and partially spent on covering electrical losses in the conductor (I 2 r). Therefore, a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field can be considered as elementary electric motor.

The described phenomena allow us to conclude:

a) for any electric machine, it is necessary to have an electrically conducting medium (conductors) and a magnetic field that can move mutually;

b) when an electric machine operates both in generator mode and in motor mode, the induction of an emf in a conductor crossing a magnetic field and the appearance of a mechanical force acting on a conductor located in a magnetic field when an electric current passes through it are simultaneously observed current;

c) the mutual transformation of mechanical and electrical energies in an electric machine can occur in any direction, that is, the same electric machine can work both

V engine mode and generator mode; this property of electric machines is called reversibility.

Considered "elementary" electrical generator and the engine reflect only the principle of using the basic laws and phenomena of electric current in them. As for the design, most electrical machines are built on the principle of rotational motion of their moving part. Despite the wide variety of designs of electric machines, it turns out to be possible to imagine some generalized design of an electric machine. This design (Fig. B.3) consists of a stationary part 1, called the stator, and a rotating part 2, called the rotor. The rotor is located

V boring of the stator and is separated from it by an air gap. One of the specified parts of the machine is equipped with elements that excite

V machine has a magnetic field (for example, an electromagnet or a permanent magnet), and the other has a winding, which we will conditionally

called the working winding of the machine. Both the stationary part of the machine (stator) and the moving part (rotor) have cores made of soft magnetic material and having low magnetic resistance.

If the electric machine operates in generator mode, then

Rice. AT 3. Generalized design diagram of an electrical machine

When the rotor rotates (under the action of the drive motor), an EMF is induced in the conductors of the working winding and when a consumer is connected, a electricity. In this case, the mechanical energy of the drive motor is converted into electrical energy. If the machine is intended to operate as an electric motor, then the working winding of the machine is connected to the network. In this case, the current that arises in the conductors of this winding interacts with the magnetic field and electromagnetic forces arise on the rotor, causing the rotor to rotate. Wherein Electric Energy, consumed by the engine from the network, is converted into mechanical energy expended to activate any mechanism, machine, vehicle, etc.

It is also possible to design electrical machines in which the working winding is located on the stator, and the elements that excite the magnetic field are on the rotor. The principle of operation of the machine remains the same.

The power range of electric machines is very wide - from fractions of a watt to hundreds of thousands of kilowatts.

V.Z. Classification of electrical machines

The use of electric machines as generators and engines is their main purpose, since it is associated exclusively with the purpose of mutual conversion of electrical and mechanical energies. However, the use of electric machines in various branches of technology may have other purposes. Thus, electricity consumption is often associated with the conversion of alternating current into direct current or with the conversion of industrial frequency current into higher frequency current. For these purposes they use electrical machine converters.

Electrical machines are also used to amplify power electrical signals. Such electric machines are called electric machine amplifiers. Electrical machines used to improve the power factor of electricity consumers are called synchronous compensators. Electrical machines used to regulate voltage alternating current, called induction regulators.

The use of micromachines in automation devices is very diverse. Here, electric machines are used not only as engines, but also as tachogenerators(to convert the rotation speed into an electrical signal), selsyns,

rotating transformers (to receive electrical signals proportional to the angle of rotation of the shaft), etc. From the above examples it is clear how diverse electrical machines are for their purposes.

Katsman M. M.
Electrical machines instrumentation devices and automation equipment

Library
SEVMASHVTUZA

Approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a teaching aid for students of educational institutions of secondary vocational education

Moscow
2006

Reviewers: prof. S.N. Stomensky (Department of Computer Science of Chuvash state university); S. Ts. Malinovskaya (Moscow Radio Engineering College).

Katsman M. M. Electrical machines instrumentation devices and automation equipment: Textbook. aid for students institutions prof. education / Mark Mikhailovich Katsman. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2006. - 368 p.

The tutorial covers the principle of operation, design, basic theory, characteristics various types power electrical machines and low-power transformers (micromachines), executive motors, information electrical machines that have received greatest application in instrument devices and automation equipment in general industrial and special areas technology.

For students of educational institutions of secondary vocational education, studying in the specialties “Instrumentation” and “Automation and Control”.

It will be useful for students of higher educational institutions and specialists involved in instrument engineering and automation of production processes.

Editor T. F. Melnikova
Technical editor N. I. Gorbacheva
Computer layout: D. V. Fedotov
Proofreaders V. A. Zhilkina, G. N. Petrova

© Katsman M.M., 2006
© Educational and Publishing Center "Academy", 2006
© Design. Publishing center "Academy", 2006

Preface
Introduction
B.I. Purpose of electrical machines and transformers
AT 2. Classification of electrical machines

PART ONE. TRANSFORMERS AND LOW POWER ELECTRICAL MACHINES

SECTION 1 TRANSFORMERS

Chapter 1. Power transformers
1.1. Purpose and principle of operation power transformer 9
1.2. Transformer design 12
1.3. Basic dependencies and relationships in transformers 14
1.4. Transformer losses and efficiency 16
1.5. Idling experiments and short circuit transformers
1.6. Changing the secondary voltage of transformer 20
1.7. Three-phase and multi-winding transformers 21
1.8. Transformers for rectifiers 24
1.9. Autotransformers

Chapter 2. Transformer devices with special properties
2.1. Peak transformers 31
2.2. Pulse transformers 33
2.3. Frequency multipliers 35
2.4. Voltage stabilizers 39
2.5. Voltage and current instrument transformers

SECTION II LOW POWER ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Chapter 3. Three-phase asynchronous motors with squirrel-cage rotor
3.1. Operating principle of a three-phase asynchronous motor
3.2. Three-phase device asynchronous motors
3.3. Basic theory of three-phase asynchronous motor
3.4. Losses and coefficient useful action asynchronous motor
3.5. Electromagnetic torque of an asynchronous motor
3.6. Influence of mains voltage and active resistance rotor windings for mechanical characteristics
3.7. Performance characteristics of three-phase asynchronous motors
3.8. Starting properties of three-phase asynchronous motors
3.9. Speed ​​regulation of three-phase asynchronous motors
3.9.1. Regulating the rotation speed by changing the active resistance in the rotor circuit
3.9.2. Regulating the rotation speed by changing the frequency of the supply voltage
3.9.3. Regulating the rotation speed by changing the supplied voltage
3.9.4. Regulating the rotation speed by changing the number of poles of the stator winding
3.9.5. Pulse speed control
3.10. Linear asynchronous motors
3.11. Start control of a three-phase asynchronous motor with a squirrel-cage rotor using an irreversible contactor

Chapter 4. Single-phase and capacitor asynchronous motors
4.1. Operating principle of a single-phase asynchronous motor
4.2. Mechanical characteristics single-phase asynchronous motor
4.3. Starting a single-phase asynchronous motor
4.4. Capacitor asynchronous motors
4.5. Connecting a three-phase asynchronous motor to a single-phase network
4.6. Single-phase asynchronous motors with shaded poles
4.7. Asynchronous machines with brake wound rotor

Chapter 5. Synchronous machines
5.1. General information about synchronous machines
5.2. Synchronous generators
5.2.1. Operating principle of a synchronous generator
5.2.2. Armature reaction in a synchronous generator
5.2.3. Synchronous Generator Voltage Equations
5.2.4. Characteristics of a synchronous generator
5.2.5. Synchronous generators, excited permanent magnets
5.3. Synchronous motors with electromagnetic excitation
5.3.1. Operating principle and design of a synchronous single-pole motor with electromagnetic excitation
5.3.2. Starting a synchronous motor with electromagnetic excitation
5.3.3. Losses, efficiency and electromagnetic torque of a synchronous motor with electromagnetic excitation
5.4. Permanent magnet synchronous motors
5.5. Low speed multi-pole synchronous motors
5.5.1. Low-speed single-phase synchronous motors types DSO32 and DSOR32
5.5.2. Low-speed capacitor synchronous motors of the DSK and DSRK types
5.6. Synchronous reluctance motors
5.7. Synchronous hysteresis motors
5.8. Shaded pole hysteresis reluctance motors
5.9. Inductor synchronous machines
5.9.1. Inductor synchronous generators
5.9.2. Synchronous Induction Motors
5.10. Synchronous motors with electromechanical speed reduction
5.10.1. Synchronous rolling rotor motors (ROS)
5.10.2. Wave synchronous motors

Chapter 6. Collector machines
6.1. Operating principle of DC commutator machines
6.2. Design of a DC collector machine
6.3. Electromotive force and electromagnetic torque of a DC commutator machine
6.4. Magnetic field of a DC machine. Anchor reaction
6.5. Switching in DC commutator machines
6.6. Methods for improving switching and suppressing interference to radio reception
6.7. Losses and efficiency of DC commutator machines
6.8. Brushed DC Motors
6.8.1. Basic dependencies and relationships
6.8.2. Motors of independent and parallel excitation
6.8.3. Regulating the rotation speed of independent and parallel excitation motors
6.8.4. Series motors
6.9. Universal brushed motors
6.10. Stabilization of rotation speed of DC motors
6.11. DC Generators
6.11.1. Independent excitation generator
6.11.2. Parallel excitation generator

Chapter 7. Electrical machines of special designs and properties
7.1. Gyroscopic motors
7.1.1. Purpose and special properties of gyroscopic engines
7.1.2. Design of gyroscopic motors
7.2. Electric machine converters
7.2.1. Electric machine converters of motor-generator type
7.2.2. Single armature converters
7.3. Electric machine power amplifiers
7.3.1. Basic Concepts
7.3.2. Electric machine transverse field amplifiers

Chapter 8. DC valve motors
8.1. Basic Concepts
8.2. The process of operation of a valve motor
8.3. Low power DC valve motor

Chapter 9. DC actuator motors
9.1. Requirements for actuator motors and control circuits for DC actuator motors
9.2. Armature control of DC actuator motors
9.3. Pole control of DC actuator motors
9.4. Electromechanical time constant of DC actuator motors
9.5. Pulse control of DC actuator motor
9.6. DC actuator motor designs
9.6.1. DC actuator motor with hollow armature
9.6.2. DC motors with printed armature windings
9.6.3. DC motor with smooth (slotless) armature

Chapter 10. Asynchronous actuator motors
10.1. Methods for controlling asynchronous actuator motors
10.2. Self-propelled in executive asynchronous motors and ways to eliminate it
10.3. Design of an executive asynchronous motor with a hollow non-magnetic rotor
10.4. Characteristics of an executive asynchronous motor with a hollow non-magnetic rotor
10.5. Executive asynchronous motor with squirrel-cage rotor
10.6. Executive asynchronous motor with a hollow ferromagnetic rotor
10.7. Electromechanical time constant of executive asynchronous motors
10.8. Torque actuator motors

Chapter 11. Actuator Stepper Motors
11.1. Basic Concepts
11.2. Stepper motors with passive rotor
11.3. Active rotor stepper motors
11.4. Inductor Stepper Motors
11.5. Basic parameters and operating modes of stepper motors

Chapter 12. Application examples of actuator motors
12.1. Examples of application of executive asynchronous motors and DC motors
12.2. Application example of an actuator stepper motor
12.3. Electric motors for driving reading devices
12.3.1. Tape transport mechanisms
12.3.2. Electric drive of devices for reading information from optical disks

SECTION IV INFORMATION ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Chapter 13. Tachogenerators
13.1. Purpose of tachogenerators and requirements for them
13.2. AC tachogenerators
13.3. DC tachogenerators
13.4. Examples of the use of tachogenerators in industrial automation devices
13.4.1. Application of tachogenerators as rotation speed sensors
13.4.2. Using a tachogenerator as a flow meter
13.4.3. The use of a tachogenerator in an electric drive with negative feedback by speed

Chapter 14. Electric synchronous communication machines
14.1. Basic Concepts
14.2. Indicator system for remote angle transmission
14.3. Synchronizing moments of synchronizers in the indicator system
14.4. Transformer remote angle transmission system
14.5. Design of selsyns
14.6. Differential selsyn
14.7. Magnesins
14.8. Examples of using selsyns in industrial automation devices
14 8 1 Registration of tool feed rate in drilling rigs
14.8.2. Regulation of the fuel-air ratio in a metallurgical furnace

Chapter 15. Rotating transformers
15.1. Purpose and design of rotating transformers
15.2. Sine-cosine rotating transformer
15.2.1. Sine-cosine rotating transformer in sine mode
15.2.2. Sine-cosine rotating transformer in sine-cosine mode
15.2.3. Sine-cosine rotating transformer in scaling mode
15.2.4. Sine-cosine rotating transformer in phase shifter mode
15.3. Linear rotating transformer
15.4. Transformer system for remote angle transmission on rotating transformers

Bibliography
Subject index

Preface

In conditions of growth technical level production and implementation of complex automation of technological processes, the issues of quality training specialists directly involved in the operation and design of automation systems. In the extensive complex of instrumentation and automation, the leading place is occupied by electric machines and low-power transformers (micromachines).

The book outlines the principle of operation, design, operating features and design of low-power electrical machines and transformers, which are widely used to drive mechanisms and devices used in instrumentation and automation equipment. Electrical machine elements that form the basis of modern automatic systems: DC and AC actuator motors, electric machine amplifiers, rotating converters, stepper motors, electrical information machines (tachogenerators, selsyns, magnesins, rotating transformers), electric motors of gyroscopic devices.

The purpose of this book is to teach a future specialist to reasonably and correctly use power electric motors and electrical machine automation elements in instrumentation devices and automation equipment.

Taking into account the specifics of teaching students in technical schools and colleges, the author, when presenting the material in the book, devoted Special attention consideration of the physical essence of phenomena and processes that explain the operation of the devices under consideration. The course presentation methodology adopted in the book is based on many years of teaching experience in educational institutions of secondary vocational education.

INTRODUCTION

IN 1. Purpose of electrical machines and transformers

The technical level of any modern manufacturing enterprise is assessed primarily by the state of automation and comprehensive mechanization of the main technological processes. At the same time, everything higher value Automation of not only physical but also mental labor is gaining momentum.

Automated systems include a wide variety of elements that differ not only in functionality, but in their operating principle. Among the many elements that make up automated complexes, electric machine elements occupy a certain place. The operating principle and design of these elements either practically do not differ from electrical machines (they are electric motors or electric generators), or are very close to them in design and the electromagnetic processes occurring in them.

An electric machine is an electrical device that carries out the mutual transformation of electrical and mechanical energies.

If the conductor is moved in a magnetic field like this. so that it crosses the magnetic lines of force, then an electromotive force (EMF) will be induced in this conductor. Any electrical machine consists of a stationary part and a moving (rotating) part. One of these parts (the inductor) creates a magnetic field, and the other has a working winding, which is a system of conductors. If mechanical energy is supplied to an electric machine, i.e. rotate its moving part, then, in accordance with the law of electromagnetic induction, an EMF will be induced in its working winding. If any consumer of electrical energy is connected to the terminals of this winding, then an electric current will arise in the circuit. Thus, as a result of the processes occurring in the machine, mechanical rotational energy will be converted into electrical energy. Electrical machines that carry out such a transformation are called electrical generators. Electric generators form the basis of the electric power industry - they are used in power plants, where they convert the mechanical energy of turbines into electrical energy.

If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force and an electric current is passed through it, then as a result of the interaction of this current with the magnetic roofing felt, a mechanical force will act on the conductor. Therefore, if the working winding of an electric machine is connected to the brush of electrical energy, then a current will appear in it, and since this winding is in the magnetic field of the inductor, then its conductors will be acted upon mechanical forces. Under the influence of these forces, the moving part of the electric machine will begin to rotate. [In this case, electrical energy will be converted into mechanical energy. Electrical machines that carry out such a transformation are called electric motors. Electric motors are widely used in electric drive of machine tools, cranes, vehicles, household appliances etc.

Electric machines have the property of reversibility, i.e. This electric machine can operate both as a generator and as a motor. It all depends on the type of energy supplied to the machine. However, usually each electric machine has a specific purpose: either it is a generator or a motor.

The basis for the creation of electrical machines and transformers was the law of electromagnetic induction discovered by M. Faraday. The beginning of the practical use of electric machines was [laid by academician B.S. Jacobi, who in 1834 created the design of an electric machine, which was the prototype of a modern commutator electric motor.

The widespread use of electric machines in industrial electric drives was facilitated by the invention by the Russian engineer M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky (1889) of a three-phase asynchronous motor, which differed from the DC commutator motors used at that time in its simplicity of design and high reliability.

By the beginning of the 20th century. most types of electrical machines that are still used today were created.

Download textbook Electrical machines, instrumentation devices and automation equipment. Moscow, Publishing center "Academy", 2006

See also:
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• Katsman M.M. Electrical machines (Document)
• Booth D.A. Non-contact electric machines (Document)
• Katsman M.M. Electrical machines, instrumentation devices and automation equipment (Document)
• Kritsshtein A.M. Electromagnetic compatibility in the electric power industry: Training manual (Document)
• Andrianov V.N. Electrical machines and apparatus (Document)
• Katsman M.M. Handbook of Electrical Machines (Document)
• German-Galkin S.G., Kardonov G.A. Electric cars. Laboratory work on PC (Document)
• Kochegarov B.E., Lotsmanenko V.V., Oparin G.V. Household machines and appliances. Tutorial. Part 1 (Document)
• Kopylov I.P. Handbook of Electrical Machines Volume 1 (Document)
• Kritsshtein A.M. Electrical machines (Document)

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Introduction

§ IN 1. Purpose of electrical machines and transformers

Electrification is carried out through electrical products produced by the electrical industry. The main branch of this industry is electrical engineering, engaged in the development and production of electrical machines and transformers.

Electric machine is an electromechanical device that carries out the mutual conversion of mechanical and electrical energy. Electrical energy is generated at power plants by electrical machines - generators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. The bulk of electricity (up to 80%) is generated at thermal power plants, where, by burning chemical fuels (coal, peat, gas), water is heated and converted into high-pressure steam. The latter is supplied to the turbine, where, expanding, it causes the turbine rotor to rotate (thermal energy in the turbine is converted into mechanical energy). The rotation of the turbine rotor is transmitted to the shaft of the generator (turbogenerator). As a result of electromagnetic processes occurring in the generator, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

The process of generating electricity at nuclear power plants is similar to thermal ones, with the only difference being that nuclear fuel is used instead of chemical fuel.

The process of generating electricity in hydraulic power plants is as follows: water raised by a dam to a certain level is discharged onto the impeller of a hydraulic turbine; The resulting mechanical energy by rotating the turbine wheel is transferred to the shaft of an electric generator, in which mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.

In the process of consuming electrical energy, it is converted into other types of energy (thermal, mechanical, chemical). About 70% of electricity is used to drive machines, mechanisms, and vehicles, i.e., to convert it into mechanical energy. This transformation is carried out by electrical machines - electric motors.

An electric motor is the main element of the electric drive of working machines. Good controllability of electrical energy and ease of distribution have made it possible to widely use multi-motor electric drives for working machines in industry, when individual parts of a working machine are driven by independent motors. A multi-motor drive significantly simplifies the mechanism of a working machine (the number of mechanical gears connecting individual parts of the machine is reduced) and creates great opportunities for automating various technological processes. Electric motors are widely used in transport as traction motors that drive wheel pairs of electric locomotives, electric trains, trolleybuses, etc.

Recently, the use of low-power electrical machines - micromachines with a power from fractions to several hundred watts - has increased significantly. Such electric machines are used in automation and computer technology devices.

A special class of electrical machines consists of motors for household electrical devices - vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, fans, etc. The power of these motors is low (from a few to hundreds of watts), the design is simple and reliable, and they are manufactured in large quantities.

Electrical energy generated at power plants must be transferred to places of consumption, primarily to large industrial centers of the country, which are many hundreds and sometimes thousands of kilometers away from powerful power plants. But transmitting electricity is not enough. It must be distributed among many different consumers - industrial enterprises, transport, residential buildings, etc. Electricity is transmitted over long distances using high voltage(up to 500 kV and more), which ensures minimal electrical losses in power lines. Therefore, in the process of transmitting and distributing electrical energy, it is necessary to repeatedly increase and decrease the voltage. This process is carried out through electromagnetic devices called transformers. A transformer is not an electrical machine, since its work is not related to the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice versa; it only converts voltage into electrical energy. Moreover, a transformer is a static device and does not have any moving parts. However, the electromagnetic processes occurring in transformers are similar to the processes occurring during the operation of electrical machines. Moreover, electrical machines and transformers are characterized by the same nature of electromagnetic and energy processes that arise during the interaction of a magnetic field and a conductor with current. For these reasons, transformers form an integral part of the electrical machines course.

The branch of science and technology involved in the development and production of electrical machines and transformers is called electrical engineering. The theoretical foundations of electrical engineering were laid in 1821 by M. Faraday, who established the possibility of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy and created the first model of an electric motor. The works of scientists D. Maxwell and E. H. Lenz played an important role in the development of electrical engineering. The idea of ​​mutual conversion of electrical and mechanical energies was further developed in the works of outstanding Russian scientists B. S. Jacobi and M. O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, who developed and created electric motor designs suitable for practical use. Great achievements in the creation of transformers and their practical application belong to the remarkable Russian inventor P.N. Yablochkov. At the beginning of the 20th century, all the main types of electrical machines and transformers were created and the foundations of their theory were developed.

Currently, domestic electrical engineering has achieved significant success. If at the beginning of this century in Russia there was virtually no electrical engineering as an independent branch of industry, then over the past 50-70 years a branch of the electrical industry has been created - electrical engineering, capable of meeting the needs of our developing National economy in electrical machines and transformers. A cadre of qualified electrical machine builders - scientists, engineers, and technicians - was trained.

Further technical progress defines as the main task the consolidation of the successes of electrical engineering through the practical implementation of the latest achievements of electrical engineering in the actual development of electric drive devices for industrial devices and products household appliances. The implementation of this requires the transfer of production to predominantly intensive path development. The main task is to increase the pace and efficiency of economic development on the basis of accelerating scientific and technological progress, technical re-equipment and reconstruction of production, and intensive use of the created production potential. A significant role in solving this problem is assigned to the electrification of the national economy.

At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the increasing environmental requirements for energy sources and, along with traditional ways develop environmentally friendly (alternative) methods of producing electricity using the energy of the sun, wind, sea tides, and thermal springs. Widely implemented automated systems in various spheres of the national economy. The main element of these systems is an automated electric drive, therefore it is necessary to increase the production of automated electric drives at an accelerated pace.

In the context of scientific and technological development, work related to improving the quality of manufactured electrical machines and transformers is becoming of great importance. Solving this problem is an important means of developing international economic cooperation. Relevant scientific institutions and industrial enterprises in Russia are working to create new types of electrical machines and transformers that meet modern requirements for the quality and technical and economic indicators of manufactured products.

§ AT 2. Electrical machines - electromechanical energy converters

Rice. IN 1. To the concept of an “elementary generator” (A) and “elementary engine” (b)

During operation of an electric machine in generator mode, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. The nature of this process is explained elek lawtromagnetic induction: if external force F influence a conductor placed in a magnetic field and move it (Fig. B.1, a), for example, from left to right perpendicular to the induction vector IN magnetic field with a speed , then an electromotive force (EMF) will be induced in the conductor

E=Blv,(B.1)

where in - magnetic induction, T; l is the active length of the conductor, i.e. the length of its part located in the magnetic field, m;  - conductor speed, m/s.

Rice. AT 2. Rules for "right hand" and "left hand"

To determine the direction of the EMF, you should use the “right hand” rule (Fig. B.2, A). Applying this rule, we determine the direction of the EMF in the conductor (away from us). If the ends of the conductor are shorted to external resistance R (consumer), then under the influence of EMF a current of the same direction will arise in the conductor. Thus, a conductor in a magnetic field can be considered in this case as elementaryny generator.

As a result of the interaction of current I with a magnetic field, an electromagnetic force acting on the conductor arises

F EM = BlI. (AT 2)

Direction of force F EM can be determined by the “left hand” rule (Fig. B.2, b ). In the case under consideration, this force is directed from right to left, i.e. opposite to the movement of the conductor. Thus, in the elementary generator under consideration, the force F EM is braking with respect to the driving force F .

With uniform movement of the conductor F = F EM . Multiplying both sides of the equality by the speed of the conductor, we get

F = F EM 

Let's substitute the value F EM into this expression from (B.2):

F = BlI = EI (V.Z)

The left side of the equality determines the value of the mechanical power expended to move the conductor in the magnetic field; the right side is the value of the electrical power developed in a closed loop by electric current I. The equal sign between these parts shows that in the generator the mechanical power expended by an external force is converted into electrical power.

If the external force F do not apply to the conductor, but apply voltage U to it from an electrical source so that the current I in the conductor has the direction shown in Fig. V.1, b , then only the electromagnetic force F EM will act on the conductor . Under the influence of this force, the conductor will begin to move in the magnetic field. In this case, an emf is induced in the conductor in the direction opposite to the voltage U. Thus, part of the voltage U, applied to the conductor is balanced by the emf E, induced in this conductor, and the other part is the voltage drop in the conductor:

U = E + Ir, (B.4)

where r - electrical resistance of a conductor.

Let's multiply both sides of the equality by the current I:

UI = EI + I 2 r.

Substituting instead E the value of the emf from (B.1), we obtain

UI =BlI + I 2 r,

or, according to (B.2),

UI=F EM  + I 2 r. (AT 5)

From this equality it follows that electric power (UI), entering the conductor is partially converted into mechanical (F EM  ), and is partially spent on covering electrical losses in the conductor ( I 2 r). Therefore, a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field can be considered as elementcontainer electric motor.

The phenomena considered allow us to conclude: a) for any electrical machine, the presence of an electrically conducting medium (conductors) and a magnetic field that can move mutually is required; b) when an electric machine operates both in generator mode and in motor mode, the induction of an EMF in a conductor crossing a magnetic field and the emergence of a force acting on a conductor located in a magnetic field when an electric current flows through it are simultaneously observed; c) the mutual transformation of mechanical and electrical energies in an electric machine can occur in any direction, i.e. the same electric machine can operate in both engine and generator modes; this property of electric machines is called reversibility. The principle of reversibility of electric machines was first established by the Russian scientist E. X. Lenz.

The considered “elementary” electric generator and engine reflect only the principle of using the basic laws and phenomena of electric current in them. As for the design, most electrical machines are built on the principle of rotational motion of their moving part. Despite the wide variety of designs of electric machines, it turns out to be possible to imagine some generalized design of an electric machine. This design (Fig. B.3) consists of a fixed part 1, called stator, and a rotating part 2 called rotorus The rotor is located in the stator bore and is separated from it by an air gap. One of these parts of the machine is equipped with elements that excite a magnetic field in the machine (for example, an electromagnet or a permanent magnet), and the other has a winding, which we will conventionally call working aboutskein of the machine. Both the stationary part of the machine (stator) and the moving part (rotor) have cores made of soft magnetic material and having low magnetic resistance.

Rice. V.Z. Generalized design diagram electric machine

If an electric machine operates in generator mode, then when the rotor rotates (under the action of the drive motor), an EMF is induced in the conductors of the working winding and when a consumer is connected, an electric current appears. In this case, the mechanical energy of the drive motor is converted into electrical energy. If the machine is intended to operate as an electric motor, then the working winding of the machine is connected to the network. In this case, the current generated in the winding conductors interacts with the magnetic field and electromagnetic forces arise on the rotor, causing the rotor to rotate. In this case, the electrical energy consumed by the engine from the network is converted into mechanical energy expended on the rotation of any mechanism, machine, etc.

It is also possible to design electrical machines in which the working winding is located on the stator, and the elements that excite the magnetic field are on the rotor. The principle of operation of the machine remains the same.

The power range of electric machines is very wide - from fractions of a watt to hundreds of thousands of kilowatts.

§ V.Z. Classification of electrical machines

Electrical machines are also used to amplify the power of electrical signals. Such electric machines are called electrical machine amplifiers. Electrical machines used to improve the power factor of electricity consumers are called synchronous compensationTori. Electrical machines used to regulate alternating current voltage are called induction regulatingTori

Very versatile application micromachines in automation and computer technology devices. Here, electric machines are used not only as engines, but also as tachogenerators(to convert rotation speed into an electrical signal), selsyns, rotating transformers(to receive electrical signals proportional to the angle of rotation of the shaft), etc.

From the above examples it is clear how diverse the division of electrical machines is according to their purpose.

Let's consider the classification of electrical machines according to the principle of operation, according to which all electric machines are divided into brushless and commutator, differing both in the principle of operation and in design. Brushless machines are AC machines. They are divided into asynchronous and synchronous. Asynchronous machines are used primarily as motors, while synchronous machines are used both as motors and as generators. Commutator machines are mainly used to operate on direct current as generators or motors. Only low-power commutator machines are made into universal motors capable of operating on both DC and AC mains.

Electrical machines of the same operating principle may differ in connection patterns or other characteristics that affect the operational properties of these machines. For example, asynchronous and synchronous machines can be three-phase (included in three-phase network), capacitor or single-phase. Depending on the design of the rotor winding, asynchronous machines are divided into machines with a squirrel cage rotor and machines with a wound rotor. Synchronous machines and commutator DC machines, depending on the method of creating a magnetic excitation field in them, are divided into machines with an excitation winding and machines with permanent magnets. In Fig. B.4 presents a diagram of the classification of electrical machines, containing the main types of electrical machines that are most widely used in modern electric drives. The same classification of electric machines forms the basis for studying the course “Electrical machines”.

TO
The course “Electrical machines”, in addition to the electrical machines themselves, includes the study of transformers. Transformers are static converters of alternating current electricity. The absence of any rotating parts gives transformers a design that fundamentally distinguishes them from electrical machines. However, the principle of operation of transformers, as well as the principle of operation of electrical machines, is based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, and therefore many provisions of the theory of transformers form the basis of the theory of alternating current electrical machines.

Electrical machines and transformers are the main elements of any energy system or installation, therefore, for specialists working in the production or operation of electrical machines, knowledge of the theory and understanding of the physical essence of electromagnetic, mechanical and thermal processes occurring in electrical machines and transformers during their operation are necessary.

] Educational edition. Textbook for students of electrical engineering specialties at technical schools. Second edition, revised and expanded.
(Moscow: Higher School Publishing House, 1990)
Scan: AAW, processing, Djv format: DNS, 2012

• BRIEF CONTENTS:
  Preface (3).
  Introduction (4).
  Section 1. TRANSFORMERS (13).
  Chapter 1. Transformer working process (15).
  Chapter 2. Winding connection groups and parallel operation of transformers (61).
  Chapter 3. Three-winding transformers and autotransformers (71).
  Chapter 4. Transients in transformers (76).
  Chapter 5. Transformer devices for special purposes (84).
  Section 2. GENERAL ISSUES IN THE THEORY OF BRUSHERLESS MACHINES (95).
  Chapter 6. Operating principle of brushless AC machines (97).
  Chapter 7. The principle of stator windings (102).
  Chapter 8. Basic types of stator windings (114).
  Chapter 9. Magnetomotive force of stator windings (125).
  Section 3. ASYNCHRONOUS MACHINES (135).
  Chapter 10. Operating modes and structure of an asynchronous machine (137).
  Chapter 11. Magnetic circuit of an asynchronous machine (146).
  Chapter 12. Working process of three-phase asynchronous motor (154).
  Chapter 13. Electromagnetic torque and performance characteristics of an asynchronous motor (162).
  Chapter 14. Experimental determination of parameters and calculation of performance characteristics of asynchronous motors (179).
  Chapter 15. Starting and speed control of three-phase asynchronous motors (193).
  Chapter 16. Single-phase and capacitor asynchronous motors (208).
  Chapter 17. Asynchronous machines for special purposes (218).
  Chapter 18. Main types of commercially produced asynchronous motors (230).
  Section 4. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES (237).
  Chapter 19. Excitation methods and design of synchronous machines (239).
  Chapter 20. Magnetic field and characteristics synchronous generators (249).
  Chapter 21. Parallel operation of synchronous generators (270).
  Chapter 22. Synchronous motor and synchronous compensator (289).
  Chapter 23. Synchronous machines for special purposes (302).
  Section 5. COLLECTOR MACHINES (319).
  Chapter 24. The principle of operation and design of DC commutator machines (321).
  Chapter 25. Armature windings of DC machines (329).
  Chapter 26. Magnetic field of a direct current machine (348).
  Chapter 27. Switching in DC machines (361).
  Chapter 28. Collector DC generators (337).
  Chapter 29. Commutator motors (387).
  Chapter 30. DC machines for special purposes (414).
  Chapter 31. Cooling of electrical machines (427).
  Tasks for independent decision (444).
  References (453).
  Subject index (451).

Publisher's abstract: The book discusses the theory, principle of operation, design and analysis of operating modes of electrical machines and transformers, both general and special purpose, which have become widespread in various branches of technology. 2nd edition (1st - 1983) supplemented with new material corresponding modern approaches to the theory and practice of electrical engineering.